Sharia

"Islamic law" redirects here. For Islamic jurisprudence, see Fiqh.

Sharia (shari'a), Islamic sharia, Islamic law (Arabic: شريعة (IPA: [ʃaˈriːʕa])) is the religious law governing the members of the Islamic faith.[1] It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. The term sharia comes from the Arabic language term sharīʿah, which means a body of moral and religious law derived from religious prophecy, as opposed to human legislation.[2][3][4]

Sharia deals with many topics, including crime, politics, marriage contracts, trade regulations, religious prescriptions, and economics, as well as personal matters such as sexual intercourse, hygiene, diet, prayer, everyday etiquette and fasting. Adherence to sharia has served as one of the distinguishing characteristics of the Muslim faith historically.[5] In its strictest definition, sharia is considered in Islam as the infallible law of God.[6]

There are two primary sources of sharia: the Quran and the Hadiths (opinions and life example of Muhammad).[7] For topics and issues not directly addressed in these primary sources, sharia is derived. The derivation differs between the various sects of Islam (Sunni and Shia are the majority), and various jurisprudence schools such as Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali and Jafari.[8][9] The sharia in these schools is derived hierarchically using one or more of the following guidelines: Ijma (usually the consensus of Muhammad's companions), Qiyas (analogy derived from the primary sources), Istihsan (ruling that serves the interest of Islam in the discretion of Islamic jurists) and Urf (customs).[8]

Sharia is a significant source of legislation in many Muslim countries where some countries apply a majority or some of the sharia code, and these include Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Brunei, Qatar, Yemen and Mauritania. In these countries, sharia-prescribed punishments such as beheading, flogging and stoning continue to be practiced judicially or extra-judicially.[10][11] Attempts to impose sharia in some parts of the world have been accompanied by controversy,[12][13][14] violence,[15][16][17][18][19][20] and even warfare.[21][22][23][24] Most countries do not recognize sharia; however, some countries in Asia (such as Israel[25]), Africa and Europe recognize parts of sharia and accept it as the law on divorce, inheritance and other personal affairs of their Islamic population.[26][27] In England, the Muslim Arbitration Tribunal makes use of sharia family law to settle disputes, and this limited adoption of sharia is controversial.[28][29][30]

The concept of crime, judicial process, justice and punishment embodied in sharia is different from that of secular law.[31][32] The differences between sharia and secular law have led to an ongoing controversy as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women's rights.[33][34][35]

Etymology and usage

The primary range of meanings of the Arabic word šarīʿah, derived from the root š-r-ʕ, is related to religion and religious law.[36] It is used by Arabic-speaking peoples of the Middle East and designates a prophetic religion in its totality.[36] For example, sharīʿat Mūsā means law or religion of Moses and sharīʿatu-nā can mean "our religion" in reference to any monotheistic faith.[36] Within Islamic discourse, šarīʿah refers to religious regulations governing the lives of Muslims.[36]

The lexicographical tradition records two major areas of use where the word šarīʿah can appear without religious connotation.[37] In texts evoking a pastoral or nomadic environment, the word and its derivatives refer to watering animals at a permanent water-hole or to the seashore, with special reference to animals who come there.[37] Another area of use relates to notions of stretched or lengthy.[37] This range of meanings is cognate with the Hebrew saraʿ and is likely to be the origin of the meaning "way" or "path".[37] Both these areas have been claimed to have given rise to aspects of the religious meaning.[37]

Some scholars describe the word šarīʿah as an archaic Arabic word denoting "pathway to be followed" (analogous to the Hebrew term Halakhah ["The Way to Go"]),[38] or "path to the water hole"[39][40] and argue that its adoption as a metaphor for a divinely ordained way of life arises from the importance of water in an arid desert environment.[40]

In the Quran, šarīʿah and its cognate širʿah occur once each, with the meaning "way" or "path".[36] The word šarīʿah was widely used by Arabic-speaking Jews during the middle ages, being the most common translation for the word torah in the 10th century Arabic Old Testament known as Saʿadya Gaon.[36] A similar use of the term can be found in Christian writers.[36] The Arabic expression Sharīʿat Allāh (شريعة الله "God’s Law") is a common translation for תורת אלוהים (‘God’s Law’ in Hebrew) and νόμος τοῦ θεοῦ (‘God’s Law’ in Greek in the New Testament [Rom. 7: 22]).[41] In Muslim literature, šarīʿah designates the laws or message of a prophet or God, in contrast to fiqh, which refers to a scholar's interpretation thereof.[42]

A related term al-qānūn al-islāmī (القانون الإسلامي, Islamic law), which was borrowed from European usage in the late 19th century, is used in the Muslim world to refer to a legal system in the context of a modern state.[43]

History

In Islam, the origin of sharia is the Qu'ran, and traditions gathered from the life of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad (born ca. 570 CE in Mecca).[44] The formative period of fiqh stretches back to the time of the early Muslim communities. In this period, jurists were more concerned with pragmatic issues of authority and teaching than with theory.[45]

Sharia underwent fundamental development, beginning with the reigns of caliphs Abu Bakr (632–34) and Umar (634–44) for Sunni Muslims, and Imam Ali for Shia Muslims, during which time many questions were brought to the attention of Muhammad's closest comrades for consultation.[46] During the reign of Muawiya b. Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, ca. 662 CE, Islam undertook an urban transformation, raising questions not originally covered by Islamic law.[46] The Umayyads initiated the office of appointing qadis, or Islamic judges. The jurisdiction of the qadi extended only to Muslims, while non-Muslim populations retained their own legal institutions.[47] Under the Umayyads Islamic scholars were "sidelined" from administration of justice and attempts to systematically uphold and develop Islamic law would wait for Abbasid rule. Al-Mansur (the first Abbasid caliph) felt a "pressing obligation – to make good on the promise to govern according to the sharia" and in 771 found "a respected member of the ulama" to serve as the head of the Egyptian judiciary, and to swear "to uphold the shari'a alone". The qadis were usually pious specialists in Islam. As these grew in number, they began to theorize and systemize Islamic jurisprudence.[48] The Abbasid made the institution of qadi independent from the government, but this separation wasn't always respected.[49]

Since then, changes in Islamic society have played an ongoing role in developing sharia, which branches out into fiqh and Qanun respectively. Progress in theory was started by 8th and 9th century Islamic scholars Abu Hanifa, Malik bin Anas, Al-Shafi'i, Ahmad ibn Hanbal and others.[8][50] Al-Shafi‘i is credited with deriving the theory of valid norms for sharia (uṣūl al-fiqh), arguing for a traditionalist, literal interpretation of Quran, Hadiths and methodology for law as revealed therein, to formulate sharia.[51][52]

A number of legal concepts and institutions were developed by Islamic jurists during the classical period of Islam, known as the Islamic Golden Age, dated from the 7th to 13th centuries. These shaped different versions of sharia in different schools of Islamic jurisprudence, called fiqhs.[53][54][55][56]

Both the Umayyad caliph Umar II and the Abbasids had agreed that the caliph could not legislate contrary to the Quran or the sunnah. Imam Shafi'i declared: "a tradition from the Prophet must be accepted as soon as it become known...If there has been an action on the part of a caliph, and a tradition from the Prophet to the contrary becomes known later, that action must be discarded in favor of the tradition from the Prophet." Thus, under the Abbasids the main features of sharia were definitively established and sharia was recognized as the law of behavior for Muslims.[57]

In modern times, the Muslim community has divided points of view: secularists believe that the law of the state should be based on secular principles, not on Islamic legal doctrines; traditionalists believe that the law of the state should be based on the traditional legal schools;[58] reformers believe that new Islamic legal theories can produce modernized Islamic law[59] and lead to acceptable opinions in areas such as women's rights.[60] This division persists until the present day.[61][62][63][64][65][66]

There has been a growing religious revival in Islam, beginning in the eighteenth century and continuing today. This movement has expressed itself in various forms ranging from wars to efforts towards improving education.[67][68]

Definitions and disagreements

Sharia, in its strictest definition, is a divine law, as expressed in the Quran and Muhammad's example (often called the sunnah). As such, it is related to but different from fiqh, which is emphasized as the human interpretation of the law.[69][70] Many scholars have pointed out that the sharia is not formally a code,[71] nor a well-defined set of rules.[72] The sharia is characterized as a discussion on the duties of Muslims[71] based on both the opinion of the Muslim community and extensive literature.[73] Hunt Janin and Andre Kahlmeyer thus conclude that the sharia is "long, diverse, and complicated."[72]

From the 9th century onward, the power to interpret law in traditional Islamic societies was in the hands of the scholars (ulema). This separation of powers served to limit the range of actions available to the ruler, who could not easily decree or reinterpret law independently and expect the continued support of the community.[74] Through succeeding centuries and empires, the balance between the ulema and the rulers shifted and reformed, but the balance of power was never decisively changed.[75] Over the course of many centuries, imperial, political and technological change, including the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution, ushered in an era of European world hegemony that gradually included the domination of many of the lands which had previously been ruled by Islamic empires.[76][77] At the end of the Second World War, the European powers found themselves too weakened to maintain their empires as before.[78] The wide variety of forms of government, systems of law, attitudes toward modernity and interpretations of sharia are a result of the ensuing drives for independence and modernity in the Muslim world.[79][80]

According to Jan Michiel Otto, Professor of Law and Governance in Developing Countries at Leiden University, "[a]nthropological research shows that people in local communities often do not distinguish clearly whether and to what extent their norms and practices are based on local tradition, tribal custom, or religion. Those who adhere to a confrontational view of sharia tend to ascribe many undesirable practices to sharia and religion overlooking custom and culture, even if high-ranking religious authorities have stated the opposite."[81]

Sources of sharia law

Main article: Sources of sharia

According to human notions of sharia, there are two sources of sharia (understood as the divine law): the Quran and the Sunnah. The Quran is viewed as the unalterable word of God. It is considered in Islam to be an infallible part of sharia. The Quran covers a host of topics including God, personal laws for Muslim men and Muslim women, laws on community life, laws on expected interaction of Muslims with non-Muslims, apostates and ex-Muslims, laws on finance, morals, eschatology, and others.[82][83] The Sunnah is the life and example of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The Sunnah's importance as a source of sharia, is confirmed by several verses of the Quran (e.g. [Quran 33:21]).[84] The Sunnah is primarily contained in the hadith or reports of Muhammad's sayings, his actions, his tacit approval of actions and his demeanor. While there is only one Quran, there are many compilations of hadith, with the most authentic ones forming during the sahih period (850 to 915 CE). The six acclaimed Sunni collections were compiled by (in order of decreasing importance) Muhammad al-Bukhari, Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Abu Dawood, Tirmidhi, Al-Nasa'i, Ibn Majah. The collections by al-Bukhari and Muslim, regarded the most authentic, contain about 7,000 and 12,000 hadiths respectively (although the majority of entries are repetitions). The hadiths have been evaluated on authenticity, usually by determining the reliability of the narrators that transmitted them.[85] For Shias, the Sunnah include life and sayings of The Twelve Imams.[86]

Quran versus Hadith

Muslims who reject the Hadith as a source of law, sometimes referred to as Quranists,[87][88] suggest that only laws derived exclusively from the Quran are valid.[89] They state that the hadiths in modern use are not explicitly mentioned in the Quran as a source of Islamic theology and practice, they were not recorded in written form until more than two centuries after the death of the prophet Muhammed.[87] They also state that the authenticity of the hadiths remains a question.[90][91]

The vast majority of Muslims, however, consider hadiths, which describe the words, conduct and example set by Muhammad during his life, as a source of law and religious authority second only to the Qur'an.[92] Similarly, most Islamic scholars believe both Quran and sahih hadiths to be a valid source of sharia, with Quranic verse 33.21, among others,[93][94] as justification for this belief.[88]

Ye have indeed in the Messenger of Allah a beautiful pattern (of conduct) for any one whose hope is in Allah and the Final Day, and who engages much in the Praise of Allah.

It is not fitting for a Believer, man or woman, when a matter has been decided by Allah and His Messenger to have any option about their decision: if any one disobeys Allah and His Messenger, he is indeed on a clearly wrong Path.

For vast majority of Muslims, sharia has historically been, and continues to be derived from both the Quran and the Hadiths.[88][92][94] The Sahih Hadiths of Sunni Muslims contain isnad, or a chain of guarantors reaching back to a companion of Muhammad who directly observed the words, conduct and example he set – thus providing the theological ground to consider the hadith to be a sound basis for sharia.[88][94] For Sunni Muslims, the musannaf in Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim is most trusted and relied upon as source for Sunni sharia.[95] Shia Muslims, however, do not consider the chain of transmitters of Sunni hadiths as reliable, given these transmitters belonged to Sunni side in Sunni-Shia civil wars that followed after Muhammad's death.[96] Shia rely on their own chain of reliable guarantors, trusting compilations such as Kitab al-Kafi and Tahdhib al-Ahkam instead, and later hadiths (usually called akhbār by Shi'i).[97][98] The Shia version of hadiths contain the words, conduct and example set by Muhammad and Imams, which they consider as sinless, infallible and an essential source of sharia for Shi'ite Muslims.[96][99] However, in substance, the Shi'ite hadiths resemble the Sunni hadiths, with one difference – the Shia hadiths additionally include words and actions of its Imams (al-hadith al-walawi), the biological descendants of Muhammad, and these too are considered an important source for sharia by Shi'ites.[97][100]

Disagreements on Quran

Main article: Naskh (tafsir)
Authenticity and writing of Quran

Some scholars such as John Wansbrough have challenged the authenticity of the Quran and whether it was written in the time of Muhammad.[101] In contrast, Estelle Whelan has refuted Wansbrough presenting evidence such as the inscriptions on the Dome of the Rock.[102][103] John Burton states that medieval era Islamic texts claiming the Quran was compiled after the death of the Prophet were forged to preserve the status-quo.[104] The final version of the Quran, states Burton, was compiled while the Prophet was still alive.[105] Most scholars accept that the Quran as is used for sharia, was compiled into the final current form during the caliphate of Uthman.[106][107]

Abrogation and textual inconsistencies

From the founding of Islam, the Muslim community has also debated the authenticity of compiled verses and the consistency within the Quran.[108][109] The inconsistencies in deriving sharia from the Quran were recognized and formally complicated by verses 2.106 and 16.101 of the Quran, which are known as the "verses of abrogation (Naskh)".[110]

The principle of abrogation has been historically accepted and applied by Islamic jurists on both the Quran and the Sunnah.[108][110] Sharia is thus determined through a chronological study of the primary sources, where older revelations are considered overruled by later revelations.[110][111] While historical and modern Islamic scholars have accepted the principle of abrogation for the Quran and the Sunnah, some modern scholars disagree that the principle of abrogation necessarily applies to the Quran.[112]

Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh)

Main article: Fiqh

Fiqh (school of Islamic jurisprudence) represents the process of deducing and applying sharia principles, as well as the collective body of specific laws deduced from sharia using the fiqh methodology.[8] While Quran and Hadith sources are regarded as infallible, the fiqh standards may change in different contexts. Fiqh covers all aspects of law, including religious, civil, political, constitutional and procedural law.[113] Fiqh deploys the following to create Islamic laws:[8]

  1. Injunctions, revealed principles and interpretations of the Quran (Used by all schools and sects of Islam)
  2. Interpretation of the Sunnah (Muhammad's practices, opinions and traditions) and principles therein, after establishing the degree of reliability of hadith's chain of reporters (Used by all schools and sects of Islam)

If the above two sources do not provide guidance for an issue, then different fiqhs deploy the following in a hierarchical way:[8]

  1. Ijma, collective reasoning and consensus amongst authoritative Muslims of a particular generation, and its interpretation by Islamic scholars. This fiqh principle for sharia is derived from Quran 4:59.[114] Typically, the recorded consensus of Sahabah (Muhammad's companions) is considered authoritative and most trusted. If this is unavailable, then the recorded individual reasoning (Ijtihad) of Muhammad companions is sought. In Islam's history, some Muslim scholars have argued that Ijtihad allows individual reasoning of both the earliest generations of Muslims and later generation Muslims, while others have argued that Ijtihad allows individual reasoning of only the earliest generations of Muslims. (Used by all schools of Islam, Jafari fiqh accepts only Ijtihad of Shia Imams)[8][115]
  2. Qiyas, analogy is deployed if Ijma or historic collective reasoning on the issue is not available. Qiyas represents analogical deduction, the support for using it in fiqh is based on Quran 2:59, and this methodology was started by Abu Hanifa.[116] This principle is considered weak by Hanbali fiqh, and it usually avoids Qiyas for sharia. (Used by all Sunni schools of Islam, but rejected by Shia Jafari)[8]
  3. Istihsan, which is the principle of serving the interest of Islam and public as determined by Islamic jurists. This method is deployed if Ijtihad and Qiyas fail to provide guidance. It was started by Hanafi fiqh as a form of Ijtihad (individual reasoning). Maliki fiqh called it Masalih Al-Mursalah, or departure from strict adherence to the Texts for public welfare. The Hanbali fiqh called it Istislah and rejected it, as did Shafi'i fiqh. (Used by Hanafi, Maliki, but rejected by Shafii, Hanbali and Shia Jafari fiqhs)[8][51]
  4. Istihab and Urf which mean continuity of pre-Islamic customs and customary law. This is considered as the weakest principle, accepted by just two fiqhs, and even in them recognized only when the custom does not violate or contradict any Quran, Hadiths or other fiqh source. (Used by Hanafi, Maliki, but rejected by Shafii, Hanbali and Shia Jafari fiqhs)[8]

Schools of law

Main article: Madhhab
Map of the Muslim world with the main schools of Islamic law (madhhab)

A Madhhab is a Muslim school of law that follows a fiqh (school of religious jurisprudence). In the first 150 years of Islam, there were many madhhab. Several of the Sahābah, or contemporary "companions" of Muhammad, are credited with founding their own. In the Sunni sect of Islam, the Islamic jurisprudence schools of Medina (Al-Hijaz, now in Saudi Arabia) created the Maliki madhhab, while those in Kufa (now in Iraq) created the Hanafi madhhab.[117] al-Shafi'i, who started as a student of Maliki school of Islamic law, and later was influenced by Hanafi school of Islamic law, disagreed with some of the discretion these schools gave to jurists, and founded the more conservative Shafi'i madhhab, which spread from jurisprudence schools in Baghdad (Iraq) and Cairo (Egypt).[118] Ahmad ibn Hanbal, a student of al-Shafi'i, went further in his criticism of Maliki and Hanafi fiqhs, criticizing the abuse and corruption of sharia from jurist discretion and consensus of later generation Muslims, and he founded the more strict, traditionalist Hanbali school of Islamic law.[119] Other schools such as the Jariri were established later, which eventually died out.[120]

Sunni sect of Islam has four major surviving schools of sharia: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali; one minor school is named Ẓāhirī. Shii sect of Islam has three: Ja'fari (major), Zaydi and Ismaili.[61][64][121][122][123] There are other minority fiqhs as well, such as the Ibadi school of Khawarij sect, and those of Sufi and Ahmadi sects.[113][124] All Sunni and Shia schools of sharia rely first on the Quran and the sayings/practices of Muhammad in the Sunnah. Their differences lie in the procedure each uses to create Islam-compliant laws when those two sources do not provide guidance on a topic.[125] The Salafi movement creates sharia based on the Quran, Sunnah and the actions and sayings of the first three generations of Muslims.[126]

The Hanafi school spread with the patronage and military expansions led by Turkic Sultans and Ottoman Empire in West Asia, Southeast Europe, Central Asia and South Asia.[127][128] It is currently the largest madhhab of Sunni Muslims.[129] The Maliki school is predominantly found in West Africa, North Africa and parts of Arabia.[129] The Shafii school spread with patronage and military expansions led by maritime Sultans, and is mostly found in coastal regions of East Africa, Arabia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and islands in the Indian ocean.[130] The Hanbali school prevails in the smallest Sunni madhhab, predominantly found in the Arabian peninsula.[129] The Shiite Jafari school is mostly found in Persian region and parts of West Asia and South Asia.

Categories of law

Along with interpretation, each fiqh classifies its interpretation of sharia into one of the following five categories: fard (obligatory), mustahabb (recommended), mubah (neutral), makruh (discouraged), and haraam (forbidden). A Muslim is expected to adhere to that tenet of sharia accordingly.[131]

The recommended, neutral and discouraged categories are drawn largely from accounts of the life of Muhammad. To say a behaviour is sunnah is to say it is recommended as an example of the life and sayings of Muhammad. These categories form the basis for proper behaviour in matters such as courtesy and manners, interpersonal relations, generosity, personal habits and hygiene.[131]

Areas of Islamic law

Main article: Topics of sharia law

The areas of Islamic law include:

Other classifications

Shari'ah law has been grouped in different ways, such as:[135][136] Family relations, Crime and punishment, Inheritance and disposal of property, The economic system, External and other relations.

"Reliance of the Traveller", an English translation of a fourteenth-century CE reference on the Shafi'i school of fiqh written by Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri, organizes sharia law into the following topics: Purification, prayer, funeral prayer, taxes, fasting, pilgrimage, trade, inheritance, marriage, divorce and justice.

In some areas, there are substantial differences in the law between different schools of fiqh, countries, cultures and schools of thought.

Objectives of Islamic law

Main article: Maqasid

A number of scholars have advanced "objectives" (مقاصد maqaṣid al-Shariah also "goals" or "purposes") they believe the sharia is intended to achieve. Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali argued that they were the preservation of Islamic religion, and in the temporal world the protection of life, progeny, intellect and wealth of Muslims.[137][138] Yazid et al state that objective of sharia in Islamic finance is to provide rules and regulations from the Quran and Sunnah.[139]

Application

Application by country

Use of sharia by country:
  Sharia plays no role in the judicial system.
  Sharia applies to Muslim's personal law.
  Sharia applies in full, including criminal law.
  Regional variations in the application of sharia.

Most Muslim-majority countries incorporate sharia at some level in their legal framework, with many calling it the highest law or the source of law of the land in their constitution.[140][141] Most use sharia for personal law (marriage, divorce, domestic violence, child support, family law, inheritance and such matters).[142][143] Elements of sharia are present, to varying extents, in the criminal justice system of many Muslim-majority countries.[11] Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Brunei, Qatar, Pakistan, United Arab Emirates, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Sudan and Mauritania apply the code predominantly or entirely while it applies in some parts of Indonesia.[11][144]

Most Muslim-majority countries with sharia-prescribed hudud punishments in their legal code do not prescribe it routinely and use other punishments instead.[140][145] The harshest sharia penalties such as stoning, beheading and the death penalty are enforced with varying levels of consistency.[146]

Since the 1970s, most Muslim-majority countries have faced vociferous demands from their religious groups and political parties for immediate adoption of sharia as the sole, or at least primary legal framework.[147] Some moderates and liberal scholars within these Muslim countries have argued for limited expansion of sharia.[148]

With the growing Muslim immigrant communities in Europe, there have been reports in some media of "no-go zones" being established where sharia law reigns supreme.[149][150] However, there is no evidence of the existence of "no-go zones", and these allegations are sourced from anti-immigrant groups falsely equating low-income neighborhoods predominantly inhabited by immigrants as "no-go zones."[151][152]

Enforcement

Main articles: Islamic religious police and Hisbah

Sharia is enforced in Islamic nations in a number of ways, including mutaween and hisbah.

The mutaween (Arabic: المطوعين، مطوعية muṭawwiʿīn, muṭawwiʿiyyah)[153] are the government-authorized or government-recognized religious police (or clerical police) of Saudi Arabia. Elsewhere, enforcement of Islamic values in accordance with sharia is the responsibility of Polisi Perda Syariah Islam in Aceh province of Indonesia,[154] Committee for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice (Gaza Strip) in parts of Palestine, and Basiji Force in Iran.[155]

Official from the Taliban beating a woman in Afghanistan for violating local interpretation of sharia.[156][157]

Hisbah (Arabic: حسبة ḥisb(ah), or hisba) is a historic Islamic doctrine which means "accountability".[158] Hisbah doctrine holds that it is a religious obligation of every Muslim that he or she report to the ruler (Sultan, government authorities) any wrong behavior of a neighbor or relative that violates sharia or insults Islam. The doctrine states that it is the divinely sanctioned duty of the ruler to intervene when such charges are made, and coercively "command right and forbid wrong" in order to keep everything in order according to sharia.[159][160][161] Some Salafist suggest that enforcement of sharia under the Hisbah doctrine is the sacred duty of all Muslims, not just rulers.[159] The doctrine of Hisbah in Islam has traditionally allowed any Muslim to accuse another Muslim, ex-Muslim or non-Muslim for beliefs or behavior that may harm Islamic society. This principle has been used in countries such as Egypt, Pakistan and others to bring blasphemy charges against apostates.[162] For example, in Egypt, sharia was enforced on the Muslim scholar Nasr Abu Zayd, through the doctrine of Hasbah, when he committed apostasy.[163][164] Similarly, in Nigeria, after twelve northern Muslim-majority states such as Kano adopted sharia-based penal code between 1999 and 2000, hisbah became the allowed method of sharia enforcement, where all Muslim citizens could police compliance of moral order based on sharia.[165] In Aceh province of Indonesia, Islamic vigilante activists have invoked Hasbah doctrine to enforce sharia on fellow Muslims as well as demanding non-Muslims to respect sharia.[166] Hisbah has been used in many Muslim majority countries, from Morocco to Egypt and in West Asia to enforce sharia restrictions on blasphemy and criticism of Islam over internet and social media.[167][168]

Legal and court proceedings

Syariah Court in Malacca, Malaysia.

Sharia judicial proceedings have significant differences from other legal traditions, including those in both common law and civil law. Sharia courts traditionally do not rely on lawyers; plaintiffs and defendants represent themselves. Trials are conducted solely by the judge, and there is no jury system. There is no pre-trial discovery process, and no cross-examination of witnesses. Unlike common law, judges' verdicts do not set binding precedents[169][170] under the principle of stare decisis,[171] and unlike civil law, sharia is left to the interpretation in each case and has no formally codified universal statutes.[172]

The rules of evidence in sharia courts also maintain a distinctive custom of prioritizing oral testimony.[173] Witnesses, in a sharia court system, must be faithful, that is Muslim.[174] Male Muslim witnesses are deemed more reliable than female Muslim witnesses, and non-Muslim witnesses considered unreliable and receive no priority in a sharia court.[175][176] In civil cases in some countries, a Muslim woman witness is considered half the worth and reliability than a Muslim man witness.[177][178] In criminal cases, women witnesses are unacceptable in stricter, traditional interpretations of sharia, such as those found in Hanbali madhhab.[174]

Criminal cases

A confession, an oath, or the oral testimony of Muslim witnesses are the main evidence admissible, in sharia courts, for hudud crimes, that is the religious crimes of adultery, fornication, rape, accusing someone of illicit sex but failing to prove it, apostasy, drinking intoxicants and theft.[179][180][181][182] Testimony must be from at least two free Muslim male witnesses, or one Muslim male and two Muslim females, who are not related parties and who are of sound mind and reliable character. Testimony to establish the crime of adultery, fornication or rape must be from four Muslim male witnesses, with some fiqhs allowing substitution of up to three male with six female witnesses; however, at least one must be a Muslim male.[183] Forensic evidence (i.e., fingerprints, ballistics, blood samples, DNA etc.) and other circumstantial evidence is likewise rejected in hudud cases in favor of eyewitnesses, a practice which can cause severe difficulties for women plaintiffs in rape cases.[184][185]

Muslim jurists have debated whether and when coerced confession and coerced witnesses are acceptable. In the Ottoman Criminal Code, the executive officials were allowed to use torture only if the accused had a bad reputation and there were already indications of his guilt, such as when stolen goods were found in his house, if he was accused of grievous bodily harm by the victim or if a criminal during investigation mentioned him as an accomplice.[186] Confessions obtained under torture could not be used as a ground for awarding punishment unless they were corroborated by circumstantial evidence.[186]

Civil cases

Quran 2:282 recommends written financial contracts with reliable witnesses, although there is dispute about equality of female testimony.[178]

Marriage is solemnized as a written financial contract, in the presence of two Muslim male witnesses, and it includes a brideprice (Mahr) payable from a Muslim man to a Muslim woman. The brideprice is considered by a sharia court as a form of debt. Written contracts are paramount, in sharia courts, in the matters of dispute that are debt-related, which includes marriage contracts.[187] Written contracts in debt-related cases, when notarized by a judge, is deemed more reliable.[188]

In commercial and civil contracts, such as those relating to exchange of merchandise, agreement to supply or purchase goods or property, and others, oral contracts and the testimony of Muslim witnesses triumph over written contracts. Sharia system has held that written commercial contracts may be forged.[188][189] Timur Kuran states that the treatment of written evidence in religious courts in Islamic regions created an incentive for opaque transactions, and the avoidance of written contracts in economic relations. This led to a continuation of a "largely oral contracting culture" in Muslim nations and communities.[189][190]

In lieu of written evidence, oaths are accorded much greater weight; rather than being used simply to guarantee the truth of ensuing testimony, they are themselves used as evidence. Plaintiffs lacking other evidence to support their claims may demand that defendants take an oath swearing their innocence, refusal thereof can result in a verdict for the plaintiff.[191] Taking an oath for Muslims can be a grave act; one study of courts in Morocco found that lying litigants would often "maintain their testimony 'right up to the moment of oath-taking and then to stop, refuse the oath, and surrender the case."[192] Accordingly, defendants are not routinely required to swear before testifying, which would risk casually profaning the Quran should the defendant commit perjury;[192] instead oaths are a solemn procedure performed as a final part of the evidence process.

Sentencing

Main article: Diyya

Sharia courts treat women and men differently, with Muslim woman's life and blood-money compensation sentence (Diyya) as half as that of a Muslim man's life.[193][194] Sharia also treats Muslims and non-Muslims differently in the sentencing process.[195] Human Rights Watch and United States' Religious Freedom Report states that in sharia courts of Saudi Arabia, "The calculation of accidental death or injury compensation is discriminatory. In the event a court renders a judgment in favor of a plaintiff who is a Jewish or Christian male, the plaintiff is only entitled to receive 50 percent of the compensation a Muslim male would receive; all other non-Muslims [Buddhists, Hindus, Jains, Atheists] are only entitled to receive one-sixteenth of the amount a male Muslim would receive".[196][197][198]

Saudi Arabia follows the Hanbali madhab, whose historic jurisprudence texts considered a Christian or Jew life as half the worth of a Muslim. Jurists of other schools of law in Islam have ruled differently. For example, Shafi'i sharia considers a Christian or Jew life as a third the worth of a Muslim, and Maliki's sharia considers it worth half.[195] The legal schools of Hanafi, Maliki and Shafi'i Sunni Islam as well as those of twelver Shia Islam have considered the life of polytheists and atheists as one-fifteenth the value of a Muslim during sentencing.[195]

Support and opposition

Support

A 2013 survey based on interviews of 38,000 Muslims, randomly selected from urban and rural parts in 39 countries using area probability designs, by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life found that a majority — in some cases "overwhelming" majority — of Muslims in a number of countries support making sharia the law of the land, including Afghanistan (99%), Iraq (91%), Niger (86%), Malaysia (86%), Pakistan (84%), Morocco (83%), Bangladesh (82%), Egypt (74%), Indonesia (72%), Jordan (71%), Uganda (66%), Ethiopia (65%), Mali (63%), Ghana (58%), and Tunisia (56%).[199] In Muslim regions of Southern-Eastern Europe and Central Asia, the support is less than 50%: Russia (42%), Kyrgyzstan (35%), Tajikistan (27%), Kosovo (20%), Albania (12%), Turkey (12%), Kazakhstan (10%), Azerbaijan (8%). Regarding specific averages, in South Asia, Sharia had 84% favorability rating among the respondents; In Southeast Asia 77%; In the Middle-East/North Africa 74%; In Sub-Saharan Africa 64%; In Southern-Eastern Europe 18%; And in Central Asia 12%.[199]

However, while most of those who support implementation of sharia favor using it in family and property disputes, fewer supported application of severe punishments such as whippings and cutting off hands, and interpretations of some aspects differed widely.[199]

According to the Pew poll, among Muslims who support making sharia the law of the land, most do not believe that it should be applied to non-Muslims. In the Muslim-majority countries surveyed this proportion varied between 74% (of 74% in Egypt) and 19% (of 10% in Kazakhstan), as percentage of those who favored making sharia the law of the land.[200]

Polls demonstrate that for Egyptians, the 'Shariah' is associated with notions of political, social and gender justice.[201]

In 2008, Rowan Williams, the archbishop of Canterbury, has suggested that Islamic and Orthodox Jewish courts should be integrated into the British legal system alongside ecclesiastical courts to handle marriage and divorce, subject to agreement of all parties and strict requirements for protection of equal rights for women.[202] His reference to the sharia sparked a controversy.[202] Later that year, Nicholas Phillips, then Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, stated that there was "no reason why sharia principles [...] should not be the basis for mediation or other forms of alternative dispute resolution."[203]

A 2008 YouGov poll in the United Kingdom found 40% of Muslim students interviewed supported the introduction of sharia into British law for Muslims.[204]

Since the 1970s, Islamist movements whose goals are establishment of Islamic states and implementation of sharia have become prominent in some countries.

Extremism

Further information: Islamic fundamentalism and Islamic terrorism

Fundamentalists, wishing to return to basic Islamic religious values and law, have in some instances imposed harsh sharia punishments for crimes, curtailed civil rights and violated human rights. Extremists have used the Quran and their own particular version of sharia to justify acts of war and terror against Muslim as well as non-Muslim individuals and governments, using alternate, conflicting interpretations of sharia and their notions of jihad.[205][206][207]

The sharia basis of arguments advocating terrorism is controversial. According to Bernard Lewis, "[a]t no time did the classical jurists offer any approval or legitimacy to what we nowadays call terrorism"[208] and the terrorist practice of suicide bombing "has no justification in terms of Islamic theology, law or tradition".[209] In the modern era the notion of jihad has lost its jurisprudential relevance and instead gave rise to an ideological and political discourse.[210] For al-Qaeda ideologues, in jihad all means are legitimate, including targeting Muslim non-combatants and the mass killing of non-Muslim civilians.[205] According to these interpretations, Islam does not make a differences between military and civilian targets, but rather between Muslims and unbelievers, whose blood can be legitimately spilled.[205]

Some scholars of Islam, such as Yusuf al-Qaradawi and Sulaiman Al-Alwan, have supported suicide attacks against Israeli civilians, arguing that they are army reservists and hence should be considered as soldiers, while Hamid bin Abdallah al-Ali declared that suicide attacks in Chechnya were justified as a "sacrifice".[205][211] Many prominent Islamic scholars, including al-Qaradawi himself, have issued condemnations of terrorism in general terms.[212] For example, Abdul-Aziz ibn Abdullah Al ash-Sheikh, the Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia has stated that "terrorizing innocent people [...] constitute[s] a form of injustice that cannot be tolerated by Islam", while Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy, Grand Imam of al-Azhar and former Grand Mufti of Egypt has stated that "attacking innocent people is not courageous; it is stupid and will be punished on the Day of Judgment".[205][213]

Opposition

Further information: Ban on sharia law

In the post-9/11 non-Muslim Western world, sharia has been called a source of "hysteria",[214] "more controversial than ever", the one aspect of Islam that inspires "particular dread".[215] On the Internet, "dozens of self-styled `counter-jihadis`" emerged to campaign against sharia law, describing it in strict interpretations resembling those of Salafi Muslims.[215] Several years after 9/11, fear of sharia law and of "the ideology of extremism" among Muslims reportedly spread to mainstream conservative Republicans in the United States.[216] Former House Speaker Newt Gingrich won ovations calling for a federal ban on sharia law.[216] In 2015, the governor of Louisiana (Bobby Jindal) warned of the danger of purported "no-go zones" in European cities allegedly operating under sharia law and where local laws are not applicable.[217] The issue of "liberty versus Sharia" was called a "momentous civilizational debate" in at least one conservative editorial page.[218] In 2008 in Britain, the future Prime Minister (David Cameron) declared his opposition to "any expansion of Sharia law in the UK."[219] In Germany, in 2014, the Interior Minister (Thomas de Maizière) told a newspaper (Bild), "Sharia law is not tolerated on German soil."[220]

In the U.S., opponents of Sharia have sought to ban it from being considered in courts, where it has been routinely used alongside traditional Jewish and Catholic laws to decide legal, business, and family disputes subject to contracts drafted with reference to such laws, as long they do not violate secular law or the U.S. constitution.[221] After failing to gather support for a federal law making observing Sharia a felony punishable by up to 20 years in prison, anti-Sharia activists have focused on state legislatures.[221] By 2014, bills aimed against use of Sharia have been introduced in 34 states and passed in 11.[221] These bills have generally referred to banning foreign or religious law in order to thwart legal challenges.[221]

Criticism

A protester opposing the Park51 project, carries an anti-sharia sign.

Compatibility with democracy

Further information: Islamic ethics, Islam and democracy, Shura, and Ijma

Ali Khan states that "constitutional orders founded on the principles of sharia are fully compatible with democracy, provided that religious minorities are protected and the incumbent Islamic leadership remains committed to the right to recall".[222][223] Other scholars say sharia is not compatible with democracy, particularly where the country's constitution demands separation of religion and the democratic state.[224][225]

Courts in non-Muslim majority nations have generally ruled against the implementation of sharia, both in jurisprudence and within a community context, based on sharia's religious background. In Muslim nations, sharia has wide support with some exceptions.[226] For example, in 1998 the Constitutional Court of Turkey banned and dissolved Turkey's Refah Party on the grounds that "Democracy is the antithesis of Sharia", the latter of which Refah sought to introduce.[227][228]

On appeal by Refah the European Court of Human Rights determined that "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy".[229][230][231] Refah's sharia-based notion of a "plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion" was ruled to contravene the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. It was determined that it would "do away with the State's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms" and "infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy".[232]

Human rights

Several major, predominantly Muslim countries have criticized the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) for its perceived failure to take into account the cultural and religious context of non-Western countries. Iran declared in the UN assembly that UDHR was "a secular understanding of the Judeo-Christian tradition", which could not be implemented by Muslims without trespassing the Islamic law.[233] Islamic scholars and Islamist political parties consider 'universal human rights' arguments as imposition of a non-Muslim culture on Muslim people, a disrespect of customary cultural practices and of Islam.[234][235] In 1990, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, a group representing all Muslim majority nations, met in Cairo to respond to the UDHR, then adopted the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam.[236][237]

Ann Elizabeth Mayer points to notable absences from the Cairo Declaration: provisions for democratic principles, protection for religious freedom, freedom of association and freedom of the press, as well as equality in rights and equal protection under the law. Article 24 of the Cairo declaration states that "all the rights and freedoms stipulated in this Declaration are subject to the Islamic shari'a".[238]

In 2009, the journal Free Inquiry summarized the criticism of the Cairo Declaration in an editorial: "We are deeply concerned with the changes to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by a coalition of Islamic states within the United Nations that wishes to prohibit any criticism of religion and would thus protect Islam's limited view of human rights. In view of the conditions inside the Islamic Republic of Iran, Egypt, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, the Sudan, Syria, Bangdalesh, Iraq, and Afghanistan, we should expect that at the top of their human rights agenda would be to rectify the legal inequality of women, the suppression of political dissent, the curtailment of free expression, the persecution of ethnic minorities and religious dissenters – in short, protecting their citizens from egregious human rights violations. Instead, they are worrying about protecting Islam."[239]

H. Patrick Glenn states that sharia is structured around the concept of mutual obligations of a collective, and it considers individual human rights as potentially disruptive and unnecessary to its revealed code of mutual obligations. In giving priority to this religious collective rather than individual liberty, the Islamic law justifies the formal inequality of individuals (women, non-Islamic people).[240] Bassam Tibi states that sharia framework and human rights are incompatible.[241] Abdel al-Hakeem Carney, in contrast, states that sharia is misunderstood from a failure to distinguish sharia from siyasah (politics).[242]

Freedom of speech

The Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam conditions free speech with sharia law: Article 22(a) of the Declaration states that "Everyone shall have the right to express his opinion freely in such manner as would not be contrary to the principles of the Shariah."[243]

Blasphemy in Islam is any form of cursing, questioning or annoying God, Muhammad or anything considered sacred in Islam.[244][245][246][247] The sharia of various Islamic schools of jurisprudence specify different punishment for blasphemy against Islam, by Muslims and non-Muslims, ranging from imprisonment, fines, flogging, amputation, hanging, or beheading.[244][248][249][250] In some cases, sharia allows non-Muslims to escape death by converting and becoming a devout follower of Islam.[251]

Blasphemy, as interpreted under sharia, is controversial.[252] Muslim nations have petitioned the United Nations to limit "freedom of speech" because "unrestricted and disrespectful opinion against Islam creates hatred".[253] Other nations, in contrast, consider blasphemy laws as violation of "freedom of speech",[254] stating that freedom of expression is essential to empowering both Muslims and non-Muslims, and point to the abuse of blasphemy laws, where hundreds, often members of religious minorities, are being lynched, killed and incarcerated in Muslim nations, on flimsy accusations of insulting Islam.[255][256]

Freedom of thought, conscience and religion

According to the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights, every human has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change their religion or belief. Sharia has been criticized for not recognizing this human right. According to scholars[33][257][258] of Islamic law, the applicable rules for religious conversion under sharia are as follows:

According to sharia theory, conversion of disbelievers and non-Muslims to Islam is encouraged as a religious duty for all Muslims, and leaving Islam (apostasy), expressing contempt for Islam (blasphemy), and religious conversion of Muslims is prohibited.[259][260] Not all Islamic scholars agree with this interpretation of sharia theory. In practice, as of 2011, 20 Islamic nations had laws declaring apostasy from Islam as illegal and a criminal offense. Such laws are incompatible with the UDHR's requirement of freedom of thought, conscience and religion.[261][262][263][264] In another 2013 report based on international survey of religious attitudes, more than 50% of Muslim population in 6 out of 49 Islamic countries supported death penalty for any Muslim who leaves Islam (apostasy).[265][266] However it is also shown that the majority of Muslims in the 43 nations surveyed did not agree with this interpretation of sharia.

Some scholars claim sharia allows religious freedom because a sharia verse teaches, "there is no compulsion in religion."[267] Other scholars claim sharia recognizes only one proper religion, considers apostasy as sin punishable with death, and members of other religions as kafir (infidel);[268] or hold that sharia demands that all apostates and kafir must be put to death, enslaved or be ransomed.[269][270][271][272] Yet other scholars suggest that sharia has become a product of human interpretation and inevitably leads to disagreements about the “precise contents of the Shari'a." In the end, then, what is being applied is not sharia, but what a particular group of clerics and government decide is sharia. It is these differing interpretations of sharia that explain why many Islamic countries have laws that restrict and criminalize apostasy, proselytism and their citizens' freedom of conscience and religion.[273][274]

LGBT rights

Main article: LGBT in Islam

Homosexual intercourse is illegal under sharia law, though the prescribed penalties differ from one school of jurisprudence to another. For example, some Muslim-majority countries impose the death penalty for acts perceived as sodomy and homosexual activities: Iran,[275] Saudi Arabia,[276] and in other Muslim-majority countries such as Egypt, Iraq, and the Indonesian province of Aceh,[277] same-sex sexual acts are illegal,[278] and LGBT people regularly face violence and discrimination.[279]

Women

Domestic violence

Many claim sharia law encourages domestic violence against women, when a husband suspects nushuz (disobedience, disloyalty, rebellion, ill conduct) in his wife.[280] Other scholars claim wife beating, for nashizah, is not consistent with modern perspectives of the Quran.[281]

One of the verses of the Quran relating to permissibility of domestic violence is Surah 4:34.[282][283] Sharia has been criticized for ignoring women's rights in domestic abuse cases.[284][285][286][287] Musawah, CEDAW, KAFA and other organizations have proposed ways to modify sharia-inspired laws to improve women's rights in Islamic nations, including women's rights in domestic abuse cases.[288][289][290][291]

Personal status laws and child marriage

Shari'a is the basis for personal status laws in most Islamic majority nations. These personal status laws determine rights of women in matters of marriage, divorce and child custody. A 2011 UNICEF report concludes that sharia law provisions are discriminatory against women from a human rights perspective. In legal proceedings under sharia law, a woman’s testimony is worth half of a man’s before a court.[177]

Except for Iran, Lebanon and Bahrain which allow child marriages, the civil code in Islamic majority countries do not allow child marriage of girls. However, with sharia personal status laws, sharia courts in all these nations have the power to override the civil code. The religious courts permit girls less than 18 years old to marry. As of 2011, child marriages are common in a few Middle Eastern countries, accounting for 1 in 6 all marriages in Egypt and 1 in 3 marriages in Yemen. UNICEF and other studies state that the top five nations in the world with highest observed child marriage rates – Niger (75%), Chad (72%), Mali (71%), Bangladesh (64%), Guinea (63%) – are Islamic-majority countries where the personal laws for Muslims are sharia-based.[292][293]

Rape is considered a crime in all countries, but sharia courts in Bahrain, Iraq, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, Syria and Tunisia in some cases allow a rapist to escape punishment by marrying his victim, while in other cases the victim who complains is often prosecuted with the crime of Zina (adultery).[177][294][295]

Women's right to property and consent

Sharia grants women the right to inherit property from other family members, and these rights are detailed in the Quran.[296] A woman's inheritance is unequal and less than a man's, and dependent on many factors.[Quran 4:12][297] For instance, a daughter's inheritance is usually half that of her brother's.[Quran 4:11][297]

Until the 20th century, Islamic law granted Muslim women certain legal rights, such as the right to own property received as Mahr (brideprice) at her marriage.[298][299] However, Islamic law does not grant non-Muslim women the same legal rights as the few it did grant Muslim women. Sharia recognizes the basic inequality between master and women slave, between free women and slave women, between Believers and non-Believers, as well as their unequal rights.[300][301] Sharia authorized the institution of slavery, using the words abd (slave) and the phrase ma malakat aymanukum ("that which your right hand owns") to refer to women slaves, seized as captives of war.[300][302] Under Islamic law, Muslim men could have sexual relations with female captives and slaves.[303][304]

Slave women under sharia did not have a right to own property or to move freely.[305][306] Sharia, in Islam's history, provided a religious foundation for enslaving non-Muslim women (and men), but nevertheless encouraged the manumission of slaves. However, manumission required that the non-Muslim slave first convert to Islam.[307][308] A non-Muslim slave woman who bore children to her Muslim master became legally free upon her master's death, and her children were presumed to be Muslims like their father, in Africa[307] and elsewhere.[309]

Starting with the 20th century, Western legal systems evolved to expand women's rights, but women's rights under Islamic law have remained tied to the Quran, hadiths and their fundamentalist interpretation as sharia by Islamic jurists.[304][310]

Parallels with Western legal systems

Elements of Islamic law have parallels in western legal systems. As example, the influence of Islam on the development of an international law of the sea can be discerned alongside that of the Roman influence.[311]

Makdisi states Islamic law also parallels the legal scholastic system in the West, which gave rise to the modern university system.[312] He writes that the triple status of faqih ("master of law"), mufti ("professor of legal opinions") and mudarris ("teacher"), conferred by the classical Islamic legal degree, had its equivalents in the medieval Latin terms magister, professor and doctor, respectively, although they all came to be used synonymously in both East and West.[312] Makdisi suggests that the medieval European doctorate, licentia docendi was modeled on the Islamic degree ijazat al-tadris wa-l-ifta’, of which it is a word-for-word translation, with the term ifta’ (issuing of fatwas) omitted.[312][313] He also argues that these systems shared fundamental freedoms: the freedom of a professor to profess his personal opinion and the freedom of a student to pass judgement on what he is learning.[312]

There are differences between Islamic and Western legal systems. For example, sharia classically recognizes only natural persons, and never developed the concept of a legal person, or corporation, i.e., a legal entity that limits the liabilities of its managers, shareholders, and employees; exists beyond the lifetimes of its founders; and that can own assets, sign contracts, and appear in court through representatives.[314] Interest prohibitions imposed secondary costs by discouraging record keeping and delaying the introduction of modern accounting.[315] Such factors, according to Timur Kuran, have played a significant role in retarding economic development in the Middle East.[316]

See also

References

Citations

  1. "British & World English: sharia". Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
  2. Ritter, Robert M.; Brown, Lesley (22 September 2005). New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors: The Essential A-Z Guide to the Written Word. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 349. ISBN 978-0-19-861040-3.
  3. Calder & Hooker 2007.
  4. Rehman, Javaid (2007). "The Sharia, Islamic Family Laws and International Human Rights Law: Examining the Theory and Practice of Polygamy and Talaq". International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family. 21 (1): 108–27. doi:10.1093/lawfam/ebl023. SSRN 1146849Freely accessible.
  5. DeLong-Bas, Natana J. (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad (First ed.). Oxford University Press, USA. p. 93. ISBN 0-19-516991-3.
  6. Coulson, N. J. (2011). "Introduction". A History of Islamic Law. Aldine. pp. 1–7. ISBN 978-1-4128-1855-1.
  7. John L. Esposito, Natana J. DeLong-Bas (2001), Women in Muslim family law, p. 2. Syracuse University Press, ISBN 978-0815629085. Quote: "[...], by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the Quran, the Sunnah of the Prophet, qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (consensus)."
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ramadan 2006, pp. 6–21.
  9. Esposito, John (1999). The Oxford history of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9.
  10. Otto 2010, p. 29.
  11. 1 2 3 Nisrine Abiad (2008), Sharia, Muslim States and International Human Rights Treaty Obligations, British Institute of International and Comparative Law, ISBN 978-1905221417
  12. Hamann, Katie (December 29, 2009). "Aceh's Sharia Law Still Controversial in Indonesia". Voice of America. Retrieved September 19, 2011.
  13. Iijima, Masako (January 13, 2010). "Islamic Police Tighten Grip on Indonesia's Aceh". Reuters. Retrieved September 18, 2011.
  14. "Aceh Sharia Police Loved and Hated". The Jakarta Post.
  15. Staff (January 3, 2003). "Analysis: Nigeria's Sharia Split". BBC News. Retrieved September 19, 2011. "Thousands of people have been killed in fighting between Christians and Muslims following the introduction of sharia punishments in northern Nigerian states over the past three years".
  16. Harnischfeger, Johannes (2008).
      p. 16. "When the Governor of Kaduna announced the introduction of Sharia, although non-Muslims form almost half of the population, violence erupted, leaving more than 1,000 people dead."
      p. 189. "When a violent confrontation loomed in February 200, because the strong Christian minority in Kaduna was unwilling to accept the proposed sharia law, the sultan and his delegation of 18 emirs went to see the governor and insisted on the passage of the bill."
  17. Mshelizza, Ibrahim (July 28, 2009). "Fight for Sharia Leaves Dozens Dead in Nigeria – Islamic Militants Resisting Western Education Extend Their Campaign of Violence". The Independent. Retrieved September 19, 2011.
  18. "Nigeria in Transition: Recent Religious Tensions and Violence". PBS.
  19. Staff (December 28, 2010). "Timeline: Tensions in Nigeria – A Look at the Country's Bouts of Inter-Religious and Ethnic Clashes and Terror Attacks". Al Jazeera English. Retrieved September 19, 2011. "Thousands of people are killed in northern Nigeria as non-Muslims opposed to the introduction of sharia, or Islamic law, fight Muslims who demand its implementation in the northern state of Kaduna.".
  20. Ibrahimova, Roza (July 27, 2009). "Dozens Killed in Violence in Northern Nigeria" (video (requires Adobe Flash; 00:01:49)). Al Jazeera English. Retrieved September 19, 2011. "The group Boko Haram, which wants to impose sharia (Islamic law) across the country, has attacked police stations and churches."
  21. . Library of Congress Country Studies: Sudan:. "The factors that provoked the military coup, primarily the closely intertwined issues of Islamic law and of the civil war in the south, remained unresolved in 1991. The September 1983 implementation of the sharia throughout the country had been controversial and provoked widespread resistance in the predominantly non-Muslim south ... Opposition to the sharia, especially to the application of hudud (sing., hadd), or Islamic penalties, such as the public amputation of hands for theft, was not confined to the south and had been a principal factor leading to the popular uprising of April 1985 that overthrew the government of Jaafar an Nimeiri".
  22. Marchal, Roland (2013). "Islamic Political Dynamics in the Somali Civil War". In Badru, Pade; Sackey, Brigid M. Islam in Africa South of the Sahara: Essays in Gender Relations and Political Reform. Scarecrow. pp. 331–53. ISBN 978-0-8108-8470-0.
  23. "Civil war was sparked in 1983 when the military regime tried to impose sharia law as part of its overall policy to 'Islamicize' all of Sudan". PBS Frontline. Retrieved 2012-04-04.
  24. Tibi, Bassam (2008). Political Islam, World Politics and Europe. Routledge. p. 33. "The shari'a was imposed on non-Muslim Sudanese peoples in September 1983, and since that time Muslims in the north have been fighting a jihad against the non-Muslims in the south."
  25. "Features – A Guide to the Israeli Legal System". LLRX.com. 2001-01-15. Retrieved 2016-03-22.
  26. Otto 2008, pp. 18–20.
  27. Stahnke, Tad and Robert C. Blitt (2005), "The Religion-State Relationship and the Right to Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Comparative Textual Analysis of the Constitutions of Predominantly Muslim Countries." Georgetown Journal of International Law, volume 36, issue 4; also see Sharia Law profile by Country, Emory University (2011)
  28. Taher, Abul (September 14, 2008). Revealed: UK’s first official sharia courts. The Sunday Times
  29. Inside Britain's Sharia courts Jane Corbin, The Telegraph (April 7, 2013)
  30. Bowen, John R. (2010). "How could English courts recognize Shariah?". University of St. Thomas Law Journal. 7 (3): 411–35.
  31. Encyclopædia Britannica, see article on Shari'ah (Islamic law), 2006
  32. Otto 2008, pp. 11–4.
  33. 1 2 3 4 5 6 An-Na'im, Abdullahi A (1996). "Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights". In Witte, John; van der Vyver, Johan D. Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives. pp. 337–59. ISBN 978-90-411-0179-2.
  34. Hajjar, Lisa (2004). "Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis". Law & Social Inquiry. 29 (1): 1–38. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x. JSTOR 4092696.
  35. Al-Suwaidi, J. (1995). Arab and western conceptions of democracy; in Democracy, war, and peace in the Middle East (Editors: David Garnham, Mark A. Tessler), Indiana University Press, see Chapters 5 and 6; ISBN 978-0253209399
  36. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Calder & Hooker 2007, p. 321.
  37. 1 2 3 4 5 Calder & Hooker 2007, p. 326.
  38. Abdal-Haqq, Irshad (2006). Understanding Islamic Law – From Classical to Contemporary (edited by Aminah Beverly McCloud). Chapter 1 Islamic Law – An Overview of its Origin and Elements. AltaMira Press. p. 4.
  39. Hashim Kamali, Mohammad (2008). Shari'ah Law: An Introduction. Oneworld Publications. pp. 2, 14. ISBN 978-1851685653.
  40. 1 2 Weiss, Bernard G. (1998). The Spirit of Islamic Law. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-8203-1977-3.
  41. Ullmann, M. (2002), Wörterbuch der griechisch-arabischen Übersetzungen des neunten Jahrhunderts, Wiesbaden, p. 437. Rom. 7: 22: ‘συνήδομαι γὰρ τῷ νόμῳ τοῦ θεοῦ’ is translated as ‘أني أفرح بشريعة الله’
  42. Calder & Hooker 2007, p. 322.
  43. Calder & Hooker 2007, p. 323.
  44. Hodgson, Marshall (1958). The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 1. University of Chicago. pp. 155–6.
  45. Weiss (2002), pp. 3, 161.
  46. 1 2 Dien, Mawil Izzi. Islamic Law: From Historical Foundations To Contemporary Practice. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004.
  47. Khadduri & Liebesny 1955, p. 37.
  48. Khadduri & Liebesny 1955, pp. 40–1.
  49. Khadduri & Liebesny 1955, p. 58.
  50. Weiss (2002). p. 162.
  51. 1 2 Baber Johansen (1998), Contingency in a Sacred Law: Legal and Ethical Norms in the Muslim Fiqh, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004106031, pp. 23–32
  52. Hallaq, Wael B. (November 1993). "Was al-Shafii the Master Architect of Islamic Jurisprudence?". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 25 (4): 587–605. doi:10.1017/s0020743800059274. JSTOR 164536.
  53. Badr, Gamal M.; Mayer, Ann Elizabeth (1984). "Islamic Criminal Justice". The American Journal of Comparative Law. 32 (1): 167–9. doi:10.2307/840274. JSTOR 840274.
  54. El-Gamal 2006, p. 16.
  55. Makdisi 1999, p. .
  56. Makdisi 2005, p. .
  57. Khadduri & Liebesny 1955, pp. 60–1.
  58. https://web.archive.org/web/20060522000137/http://www.averroes-foundation.org/articles/sex_slavery.html. Archived from the original on May 22, 2006. Retrieved February 14, 2006. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  59. https://web.archive.org/web/20060708103623/http://www.averroes-foundation.org/articles/islamic_law_evolving.html. Archived from the original on July 8, 2006. Retrieved February 12, 2006. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  60. https://web.archive.org/web/20060708103932/http://www.averroes-foundation.org/articles/free_and_equal.html. Archived from the original on July 8, 2006. Retrieved February 14, 2006. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  61. 1 2 Brown 1996
  62. Hallaq 2001
  63. Ramadan 2005
  64. 1 2 Aslan 2006
  65. Safi 2003
  66. Nenezich 2006
  67. Lapidus, Ira (edited by Francis Robinson) (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World. Cambridge University Press. p. 292. see Bibliography for Conclusion.
  68. Hamoud, Hassan R. "Illiteracy in the Arab World". Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2006, Literacy for Life UNESCO.
  69. Esposito (2004), "Shariah", pg. 288
  70. Calder & Hooker 2007, p. : "Within Muslim discourse, sharia designates the rules and regulations governing the lives of Muslims, derived in principle from the Kuran and hadith. In this sense, the word is closely associated with fiḳh [q.v.], which signifies academic discussion of divine law."
  71. 1 2 Gibb, Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen (1970). Mohammedanism – An Historical Survey. Oxford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 0-19-500245-8.
  72. 1 2 Hunt Janin and Andre Kahlmeyer in Islamic Law: the Sharia from Muhammad's Time to the Present by Hunt Janin and Andre Kahlmeyer, McFarland and Co. Publishers, 2007, p. 3. ISBN 0786429216
  73. The Sharia and The Nation State: Who Can Codify the Divine Law? p.2. Accessed 20 September 2005.
  74. Basim Musallam, The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 176.
  75. Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 3. University of Chicago, 1958, pp. 105–8.
  76. Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 3. University of Chicago, 1958, pp. 176–177.
  77. Sarah Ansari, The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 90.
  78. Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 3. University of Chicago, 1958, pp. 366–7.
  79. Ansari, Sarah. The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 103–11.
  80. Hodgson, Marshall. The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 3. University of Chicago, 1958, pp. 384–6.
  81. Otto 2008, p. 30.
  82. Fazlur Rahman (2009), The major themes of Quran, 2nd Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226702865
  83. Shabbir Akhtar (2008), The Quran and the Secular Mind: A Philosophy of Islam, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415437837
  84. Ramadan 2006, p. 4.
  85. Ramadan 2006, pp. 12–3.
  86. Glenn, H. Patrick (2014). p. 199.
  87. 1 2 Aisha Y. Musa, The Qur’anists, Florida International University, accessed May 22, 2013.
  88. 1 2 3 4 Neal Robinson (2013), Islam: A Concise Introduction, Routledge, ISBN 978-0878402243, Chapter 7, pp. 85–9
  89. Edip Yuksel, Layth Saleh al-Shaiban, Martha Schulte-Nafeh, Quran: A Reformist Translation, Brainbow Press, 2007
  90. Al-Shibli, Sirat al-Numan, Lahore, n. d. Trans. Muhammad Tayyab Bakhsh Badauni as Method of Sifting Prophetic Tradition, Karachi, 1966. 179
  91. Iqbal, Muhammad, The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, edited by M. Saeed Sheikh, Adam Publishers and Distributors, Delhi, 1997 (also published earlier (in 1934) by the Oxford University Press), p. 137
  92. 1 2 Aisha Y. Musa, The Qur’anists, Florida International University, accessed May 22, 2013; Quote: "Stories relating the words and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad, known as Hadith in Arabic, have long been esteemed by the vast majority of Muslims as a source of law and guidance second only to the Qur’an in authority."
  93. Quran 3:32, Quran 3:132, Quran 4:59, Quran 8:20, Quran 33:66
  94. 1 2 3 Muhammad Qasim Zaman (2012), Modern Islamic Thought in a Radical Age, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1107096455, pp. 30–1
  95. Jonathan A.C. Brown (2009), Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World, Oneworld Publications, ISBN 978-1851686636, Chapter 2
  96. 1 2 Moojan Momen (1987), An Introduction to Shiʻi Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0300035315, pp. 173–5
  97. 1 2 William C. Chittick (1981), A Shi'ite Anthology, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0873955102, pp. 5–12
  98. Joseph Lowry (2010), in The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad (Editor: Jonathan E. Brockopp), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521713726, pp. 92–4
  99. Hakeem, Farrukh B.; Haberfeld, M. R.; Verma, Arvind (2012). "Human Rights and Islamic Law". Policing Muslim Communities: Comparative International Context. Springer. pp. 41–57. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3552-5_4. ISBN 978-1-4614-3552-5.
  100. Jonathan A.C. Brown (2009), Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World, Oneworld Publications, ISBN 978-1851686636, Chapter 4
  101. Cambridge Companion to the Quran. p. 60.
  102. Whelan, Estelle (1998). "Forgotten Witness: Evidence for the Early Codification of the Qurʾān". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 118 (1): 1–14. doi:10.2307/606294. JSTOR 606294.
  103. Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World. pp. 18, 167.
  104. Cambridge Companion to the Quran. p. 63.
  105. Cambridge Companion to the Quran. pp. 62–63.
  106. Cambridge Companion to the Quran. p. 62.
  107. "British university reveals Quran parchment among oldest". DAWN. Dawn News. 22 July 2015. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
  108. 1 2 Motzki, Harald (2006). McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān. Cambridge University Press. pp. 59–67. ISBN 978-0-521-53934-0.
  109. Rippin, A. (2009). "Al-Zuhrī, Naskh al-Qur'ān and the problem of early Tafsīr texts". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 47 (1): 22–43. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00022126. JSTOR 618316.
  110. 1 2 3 Hallaq, Wael B. (2009). Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations. Cambridge University Press. pp. 96–7. ISBN 978-0-521-86147-2.
  111. Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck; Esposito, John L. (1997). Islam, Gender, & Social Change. Oxford University Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-19-511357-0.
  112. Fatoohi, Louay (2012). Abrogation in the Qurʼan and Islamic Law. Routledge. pp. 3–6. ISBN 978-0-415-63198-3.
  113. 1 2 Ramadan 2006, pp. 5–7.
  114. Ramadan 2006, p. 17.
  115. Javaid Rehman et al (Editors), Religion, Human Rights and International Law, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004158269, p. 82 (notes 2-6)
  116. Ramadan 2006, p. 18.
  117. Ian Netton (2007), Encyclopaedia of Islam, ISBN 978-0700715886, pp. 230, 358–9
  118. Ramadan 2006, pp. 27–8.
  119. Chiragh Ali (2002), Modernist Islam 1840–1940: A Sourcebook, Edited by Charles Kurzman, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195154689, pp. 281–2
  120. A.C. Brown, Jonathan (2014). Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy. Oneworld Publications. p. 193. ISBN 978-1780744209. Although it eventually became extinct, Tabari's madhhab flourished among Sunni ulama for two centuries after his death.
  121. John Esposito, The History of Islam, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195107999
  122. Hallaq 1997
  123. Mohamed Keshavjee, Islam, Sharia and Alternative Dispute Resolution, Taurus, ISBN 978-1848857322
  124. Abdulaziz Abdulhussein Sachedina, The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195119152
  125. Ramadan 2006, pp. 24–30.
  126. Esposito, John L. (2010). The Future of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 74–77.
  127. Esposito 1999, pp. 112–4.
  128. Nazeer Ahmed (2001), Islam in Global History, (Xlibris) ISBN 978-0738859620.
  129. 1 2 3 Jurisprudence and Law – Islam Reorienting the Veil, University of North Carolina (2009)
  130. MN Pearson (2000), The Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, in The History of Islam in Africa (Ed: Nehemia Levtzion, Randall Pouwels), Ohio University Press, ISBN 978-0821412978, Chapter 2
  131. 1 2 3 4 5 Horrie & Chippindale 1991, p. 46.
  132. Heck, Paul L. (2006), "Taxation", In Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an, vol. 5, (McAuliffe, Jane Dammen editor), Leiden: Brill Publishers. ISBN 90-04-14743-8
  133. Medani Ahmed and Sebastian Gianci, Zakat, Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy (Cordes et al. editors), ISBN 978-0877666820, pp. 479–81
  134. 1 2 Horrie & Chippindale 1991, pp. 46–7.
  135. Doi ARI. Shariah: The Islamic Law, AS Noordeen Publishers, Kuala Lumpur, ISBN 9679963330
  136. "Online Book". Abdurrahmandoi.net. Retrieved 2012-11-26.
  137. Shah, Niaz A (2011-03-03). Islamic Law and the Law of Armed Conflict: The Conflict in Pakistan. Taylor & Francis. p. 16. ISBN 9781136824685. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
  138. Chapra, Muhammad Umer (2000), The Future of Economics: An Islamic Perspective, Leicester: The Islamic Foundation, p.118, ISBN 978-0-86037-2752
  139. MOHAMAD YAZID, I; ASMADI, M.N; MOHD LIKI, H (March 2015). "The Practices of Islamic Finance in Upholding the Islamic" (PDF). International Review of Management and Business Research. 4 (1): 286–7. Retrieved 27 August 2015.
  140. 1 2 Johnson, Toni; Sergie, Mohammed Aly (July 25, 2014). "Islam: Governing under Sharia". Council on Foreign Relations.
  141. Amanat & Griffel (2007), Shari'a: Islamic Law in the Contemporary Context, Stanford University Press, ISBN 978-0804756396
  142. Schenker, J G (2000). "Women's reproductive health: monotheistic religious perspectives". International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics. 70 (1): 77–86. doi:10.1016/S0020-7292(00)00225-3. PMID 10884536.
  143. Khadduri & Liebesny 1955, p. .
  144. Otto 2010, p. 28.
  145. "Right to equal protection by the law: Case Study: Sharia law". BBC World Service. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
  146. "The Emergence of Sharia Law". Online NewsHour. Archived from the original on March 8, 2013. Retrieved 20 February 2013.
  147. An-Na'im, Abdullahi Ahmed (1990). "Human Rights in the Muslim World: Socio-Political Conditions and Scriptural Imperatives". Harvard Human Rights Journal. 3: 13–29.
  148. Otto 2010, pp. 29–33.
  149. "Swedish Police Lose Control Of 55 No-Go Zones To Muslim Gangs". The Daily Caller. Retrieved 22 March 2015.
  150. Jaffe, Alexandra (19 January 2015). "Bobby Jindal slams 'no-go zones,' pushes 'assimilation'". CNN. Retrieved 22 March 2015.
  151. Stelter, Brian (18 January 2015). "Fox News apologizes 4 times for inaccurate comments about Muslims in Europe". CNNMoney. Retrieved 22 March 2015.
  152. "Jindal condemns imaginary 'no-go zones'". MSNBC. Retrieved 22 March 2015.
  153. muṭawiʿin; variant English spellings: mutawwain, muttawa, mutawallees, mutawa’ah, mutawi’, mutawwa' most literally means "volunteers" in the Arabic language, Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic by Hans Wehr, edited by J. M. Cowan, 4th edition (1994, ISBN 0-87950-003-4), p. 670.
  154. Fealy & White (2008), Regional Sharia Regulations in Indonesia: Anomaly or Symptom?, Chapter: Expressing Islam: Religious life and politics in Indonesia, ISBN 978-9812308511
  155. "Iran's Basij Force – The Mainstay Of Domestic Security. January 15, 2009". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty.
  156. SK Moore (2012), Military Chaplains as Agents of Peace, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 978-0739149102, p. 169, Quote: "The Department of the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice enforced their version of Sharia Law. A woman could not appear in public without being accompanied by a male relative. The burkha remains a symbol of oppression in Afghan society... women resisting these arcane restrictions were beaten publicly by the Taliban clothes police whose mandate it was to patrol city streets in search of malcontents, enforcing their version of Sharia law."
  157. Sami Zubaida (2005), Law and Power in the Islamic World, ISBN 978-1850439349, pp. 58–60
  158. 1 2 Lorenzo Vidino (2013), Hisba in Europe?, European Foundation for Democracy, Switzerland
  159. Michael Cook: Commanding right and forbidding wrong in Islamic thought. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge 2000. ISBN 0-521-66174-9
  160. Quran 3:104, Quran 3:110, Quran 9:71
  161. Nancy Gallagher (2005), Apostasy, Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics, Editors: Suad Joseph and Afsāna Naǧmābād, ISBN 978-9004128187, pages 7-9
  162. Berger, Maurits (2003). "Apostasy and Public Policy in Contemporary Egypt: An Evaluation of Recent Cases from Egypt's Highest Courts". Human Rights Quarterly. 25 (3): 720–40. doi:10.1353/hrq.2003.0026. JSTOR 20069684.
  163. Olsson, Susanne (2008). "Apostasy in Egypt: Contemporary Cases of Ḥisbah". The Muslim World. 98 (1): 95–115. doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.2008.00212.x.
  164. Olaniyi, Rasheed Oyewole (2011). "Hisbah and Sharia Law Enforcement in Metropolitan Kano". Africa Today. 57 (4): 71–96. doi:10.2979/africatoday.57.4.71.
  165. Uddin, Asma (2010). "Religious Freedom Implications of Sharia Implementation in Aceh, Indonesia". University of St. Thomas Law Journal. 7 (3): 603–48. SSRN 1885776Freely accessible.
  166. Helmi Noman (2013), "In the name of God – Faith based internet censorship in majority Muslim countries", in Routledge Handbook of Media Law (Editors: Monroe E. Price, et al.), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415683166, Chapter 14
  167. SK Moore (2012), Military Chaplains as Agents of Peace, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 978-0739149102, p. 169
  168. Islamic Law – Legal Literature And Institutions, Jurisprudence: The "Sources" of the Law, The Modern Period.
  169. "Qatar: The Duality of the Legal System".
  170. Saudi Arabia Basic Industries Corp. v. Mobil Yanbu Petrochemical Co., Supreme Court of Delaware, January 14, 2005 p. 52. "The Saudi law system differs in critically important respects from the system of legal thought employed by the common law countries, including the United States. Perhaps most significant is that Islamic law does not embrace the common law system of binding precedent and stare decisis. In Saudi Arabia, judicial decisions are not in themselves a source of law, and with minor exceptions, court decisions in Saudi Arabia are not published or even open to public inspection."
  171. Tetley (1999), Mixed Jurisdictions: Common Law v. Civil Law (Codified and Uncodified), La. Law Review, 60, 677
  172. Fortna, Benjamin C. (March 2011). "Education and Autobiography at the End of the Ottoman Empire". Die Welt des Islams. New Series, Vol. 41, Issue 1. p. 131. "the literacy rate in the Ottoman Empire in 1900 was between five and ten percent".
  173. 1 2 Antoinette Vlieger (2012), Domestic Workers in Saudi Arabia and the Emirates, ISBN 978-1610271288, Chapter 4
  174. Tahir Wasti (2009), The Application of Islamic Criminal Law in Pakistan, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004172258, pp. 126–7
  175. Etannibi E. O. Alemika (2005), "Human Rights and Shariah Penal Code in Northern Nigeria", UN Human Rights Monitor, pp. 110–27
  176. 1 2 3 "MENA Gender Equality Profile – Status of Girls and Women in the Middle East and North Africa, UNICEF (October 2011)" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-03-22.
  177. 1 2 Fadel, Mohammad (2009). "Two Women, One Man: Knowledge, Power, and Gender in Medieval Sunni Legal Thought". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 29 (2): 185–204. doi:10.1017/S0020743800064461. JSTOR 164016. SSRN 1113891Freely accessible.
  178. Mohamed S. El-Awa (1993), Punishment In Islamic Law, American Trust Publications, ISBN 978-0892591428, pp. 1–68
  179. Otto 2008, p. 663.
  180. Otto 2008, p. 31.
  181. Philip Reichel and Jay Albanese (2013), Handbook of Transnational Crime and Justice, SAGE publications, ISBN 978-1-4522-4035-0, pp. 36–7
  182. Ajijola, Alhaji A.D. (1989). Introduction to Islamic Law. Karachi: International Islamic Publishers. p. 133.
  183. Kamali, Mohammad Hashim (1998). "Punishment in Islamic Law: A Critique of the Hudud Bill of Kelantan, Malaysia". Arab Law Quarterly. 13 (3): 203–34. doi:10.1163/026805598125826102. JSTOR 3382008.
  184. Mohd Noor, Azman; Ibrahim, Ahmad Basri (2008). "The rights of a rape victim in Islamic Law". IIUM Law Journal. 16 (1): 65–83.
  185. 1 2 Peters, Rudolph (2006). Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law. Cambridge University Press. pp. 81–2. ISBN 978-0-521-79670-5.
  186. Paul Powers (2005). Intent in Islamic Law: Motive and Meaning in Medieval Sunnī Fiqh. Brill Academic. pp. 97–110, 125–141. ISBN 978-90-04-14592-4.
  187. 1 2 Reem Meshal (2014), Sharia and the Making of the Modern Egyptian, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-9774166174, pp. 96–101 and Chapter 4
  188. 1 2 Timur Kuran (2012), The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691156415, pp. 246–9 and Chapter 12
  189. "Explaining the Economic Trajectories of Civilizations – Musings on the Systemic Approach". pp. 7, 10.
  190. Lippman, Matthew Ross; McConville, Seán; Yerushalmi, Mordechai (1988). Islamic Criminal Law and Procedure – An Introduction. New York City: Praeger Publishers. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-275-93009-7.
  191. 1 2 Frank, Michael J. (April 2006). "Trying Times – The Prosecution of Terrorists in the Central Criminal Court of Iraq". Florida Journal of International Law.
  192. William, Arsani (Spring 2010). "An Unjust Doctrine of Civil Arbitration: Sharia Courts in Canada and England" (PDF). Stanford Journal of International Relations. 11 (2): 40–7.
  193. M Kar (2005), Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics (Ed: Suad Joseph, Afsāna Naǧmābādī), Brill, ISBN 978-9004128187, pp. 406–7
  194. 1 2 3 Anver M. Emon (2012), ;;Religious Pluralism and Islamic Law: Dhimmis and Others in the Empire of Law;;, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199661633, pp. 234–5
  195. State Department of the U.S. Government (2012), SAUDI ARABIA 2012 INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM REPORT, p. 4
  196. Human Rights Watch (2004), Migrant Communities in Saudi Arabia
  197. Saudi Arabia BUREAU OF DEMOCRACY, HUMAN RIGHTS, AND LABOR, US State Department, 2011 Report on International Religious Freedom Report (2011)
  198. 1 2 3 Stence, Sandra, ed. (2013). The World’s Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society (PDF). Research: Alan Cooperman, Neha Sahgal, Jessica Hamar Martinez, et al. The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. pp. 15–19, 46, 147–8. Retrieved 31 August 2015.
  199. Stence 2013, p. 48.
  200. Jonathan A.C. Brown, Misquoting Muhammad, p. 131.
  201. 1 2 Feldman, Noah (Mar 16, 2008). "Why Shiariah?". New York Times Magazine.
  202. "Sharia law 'could have UK role'". BBC News. 4 July 2008. Retrieved Sep 4, 2016.
  203. Killing for religion is justified, say third of Muslim students The Telegraph (July 26, 2008)
  204. 1 2 3 4 5 Anisseh Engeland-Nourai, The Challenge of Fragmentation of International Humanitarian Law Regarding the Protection of Civilians – An Islamic Perspective School of Law, University of Bedfordshire, pp. 18–25
  205. Horrie & Chippindale 1991, p. 4.
  206. Horrie & Chippindale 1991, p. 100.
  207. Bernard Lewis (with Buntzie Ellis Churchill) 'Islam: The Religion and the People' (2008). Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 151
  208. Bernard Lewis (with Buntzie Ellis Churchill) 'Islam: The Religion and the People' (2008). Pearson Prentice Hall p. 153
  209. Wael B. Hallaq (2009). Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations. Cambridge University Press. p. 335.
  210. Controversial preacher with 'star status' BBC article, by agdi Abdelhadi on 7 July 2004
  211. "Islamic Statements Against Terrorism – Charles Kurzman".
  212. Ira Lapidus, The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 297–8 see Bibliography for Conclusion.
  213. Awad, Abed (14 June 2012). "The Nation".
  214. 1 2 Kadri, Sadakat (2012). Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia .. Macmillan. pp. 267–8. ISBN 9780099523277.
  215. 1 2 SLAJDA, RACHEL (September 23, 2010). "The War On Sharia Started Long Before You Ever Heard 'Ground Zero Mosque'". Talking Points Memo. TPM Muckraker. Retrieved 10 December 2015.
  216. GRAHAM, DAVID A. (20 January 2015). "Why the Muslim 'No-Go-Zone' Myth Won't Die". The Atlantic. Retrieved 5 September 2015.
  217. West, Diana (23 February 2008). "Don't Ignore Sharia's Advance". Times – News [Burlington, N.C].
  218. "Cameron steps into Sharia law row". BBC. 26 February 2008. Retrieved 10 December 2015.
  219. "Germany won't tolerate 'Sharia police'". DW. 6 September 2014. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
  220. 1 2 3 4 Thomas, Jeffrey L. (2015). Scapegoating Islam: Intolerance, Security, and the American Muslim. ABC-CLIO. pp. 83–86.
  221. Khan, Ali (September 9, 2002). "Will the European Court of Human Rights Push Turkey Toward Islamic Revolution?". Jurist. SSRN 941002Freely accessible.
  222. Khan, L. Ali. A Theory of Universal Democracy: Beyond the End of History, The Hague, Kluwer Law International, 2003, ISBN 90-411-2003-3.
  223. Grant, Audra K.; Tessler, Mark A. "Palestinian attitudes toward democracy and its compatibility with Islam: Evidence from public opinion research in the West Bank and Gaza". Arab Studies Quarterly. 24 (4): 1–20. JSTOR 41858422.
  224. Jung, Dietrich (2011). "Globalization, State Formation and Religion in the Middle East: 'Is Islam Incompatible with Democracy?'". Distinktion: Scandinavian Journal of Social Theory. 5 (1): 61–78. doi:10.1080/1600910X.2004.9672877.
  225. Mogahed, D. (2006), Islam and democracy, Washington: The Gallup Center for Muslim Studies
  226. Toprak, Binnaz (2007). "Islam and Democracy in Turkey". Turkish Studies. 6 (2): 167–86. doi:10.1080/14683840500119494.
  227. Yavuz, M. Hakan (1997). "Political Islam and the Welfare (Refah) Party in Turkey". Comparative Politics. 30 (1): 63–82. doi:10.2307/422193. JSTOR 422193.
  228. "Refah Partisi (The Welfare Party) and Others v. Turkey". The International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law. February 13, 2003. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
  229. Hearing of the European Court of Human Rights, January 22, 2004 (PDF)
  230. "ECHR press release Refah Partisi (2001)". Echr.coe.int. Retrieved 2012-04-04.
  231. Christian Moe (2012), Refah Revisited: Strasbourg's Construction of Islam, in Islam, Europe and emerging legal issues (editors: W. Cole Durham Jr. et al.), ISBN 978-1-4094-3444-3, pp. 235–71
  232. David P. Forsythe (2009), Encyclopedia of Human Rights: Vol. 1, Oxford University Press, pp 239-245
  233. Sajoo, Amyn B (Spring 1990). "Islam and Human Rights: Congruence or Dichotomy". Temple International and Comparative Law Journal. 4 (1): 23–34. OCLC 81814299.
  234. Ali, Kecia (2003). "Progressive Muslims and Islamic jurisprudence: the necessity for critical engagement with marriage and divorce law". In Safi, Omid. Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism. Oneworld. pp. 163–87. ISBN 978-1-78074-045-4.
  235. Bielefeldt, Heiner (2000). "'Western' versus 'Islamic' Human Rights Conceptions?: A Critique of Cultural Essentialism in the Discussion on Human Rights". Political Theory. 28 (1): 90–121. doi:10.1177/0090591700028001005. JSTOR 192285.
  236. Anver M. Emon, Mark Ellis, Benjamin Glahn (2012), Islamic Law and International Human Rights Law, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-964144-4
  237. Mayer, Ann Elizabeth (2016). "Islamic Law and Human Rights: Conundrums and Equivocations". In Gustafson, Carrie; Juviler, Peter H. Religion and Human Rights: Competing Claims?: Competing Claims?. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-50255-7.
  238. Paul Kurtz, Austin Dacey, and Tom Flynn. "Defaming Human Rights". Free Inquiry. February/March 2009, Vol. 29, No. 2.
  239. Glenn, H. Patrick (2014), pp. 199–205
  240. Tibi, Bassam (2008). "The Return of the Sacred to Politics as a Constitutional Law The Case of the Shari'atization of Politics in Islamic Civilization". Theoria. 55 (115). doi:10.3167/th.2008.5511506. JSTOR 41802396.
  241. Carney, ABD Al-Hakeem (2003). "The Desacralisation of Power in Islam". Religion, State and Society. 31 (2): 203–19. doi:10.1080/09637490308281.
  242. http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/instree/cairodeclaration.html
  243. 1 2 Siraj Khan, Blasphemy against the Prophet, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture (Editors: Coeli Fitzpatrick and Adam Hani Walker), ISBN 978-1610691772, pp. 59–67
  244. R Ibrahim (2013), Crucified Again, ISBN 978-1621570257, pp. 100–1
  245. Wiederhold, Lutz (1997). "Blasphemy against the Prophet Muhammad and his companions (sabb al-rasul, sabb al-sahabah): The introduction of the topic into shafi'i legal literature and its relevance for legal practice under Mamluk rule". Journal of Semitic Studies. 42 (1): 39–70. doi:10.1093/jss/XLII.1.39.
  246. Saeed, Abdullah; Hassan Saeed (2004). Freedom of Religion, Apostasy and Islam. Burlington VT: Ashgate Publishing Company. pp. 38–9. ISBN 978-0-7546-3083-8.
  247. "Blasphemy: Islamic Concept". Encyclopedia of Religion. 2. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale. 2005. pp. 974–976.
  248. Ibn Taymiyyah (a Salafi, related to Hanbali school), al-Sārim al-Maslūl ‘ala Shātim al-Rasūl (or, A ready sword against those who insult the Messenger), Published in 1297 AD in Arabic, Reprinted in 1975 and 2003 by Dar-ibn Hazm (Beirut), the book is on blasphemy/insulting Muhammad and the punishment per sharia
  249. Jerusha Lamptey (2014), Never Wholly Other: A Muslima Theology of Religious Pluralism, Oxford University Press, Chapter 1 with footnotes 28, 29 p. 258
  250. Carl Ernst (2005), "Blasphemy: Islamic Concept", Encyclopedia of Religion (Editor: Lindsay Jones), Vol 2, Macmillan Reference, ISBN 0-02-865735-7
  251. Harun Omer, "The Invented Islam – 'Punishment for Blasphemy'", TheSharia.com, 2015
  252. An Anti-Blasphemy Measure Laid to Rest Nina Shea, National Review (MARCH 31, 2011)
  253. Brian Winston (2014), The Rushdie Fatwa and After: A Lesson to the Circumspect, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-1137388599, p. 74, Quote: "(In the case of blasphemy and Salman Rushdie) the death sentence it pronounced was grounded in a jurisprudential gloss on the Surah al-Ahzab (33:57)"
  254. Bad-mouthing: Pakistan’s blasphemy laws legitimise intolerance The Economist (November 29, 2014)
  255. Blasphemy: Dangerous words The Economist (January 7, 2015)
  256. "Religious conversion and sharia law, Lionel Beehner (2007), Council on Foreign Relations (Washington DC)". Council on Foreign Relations.
  257. Feldman, Noah (2008). The Fall and Rise of the Islamic State. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12045-4.
  258. Stahnke, Tad (January 1999). "Proselytism and the Freedom to Change Religion in International Human Rights Law". Brigham Young University Law Review. 1999 (1): 251–350.
  259. ABDULLAHI AHMED AN-NA’IM, ISLAM AND THE SECULAR STATE: NEGOTIATING THE FUTURE OF SHARI’A 14 (2008)
  260. "Laws Penalizing Blasphemy, Apostasy and Defamation of Religion are Widespread". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 21 November 2012.
  261. Freedom of Religion, Apostasy and Islam by Abdullah Saeed and Hassan Saeed (Mar 30, 2004), ISBN 978-0-7546-3083-8
  262. "Human Rights Watch (February 2012), Writer faces apostasy trial in Saudi Arabia".
  263. "The Fate of Infidels and Apostates under Islam". Archived from the original on August 17, 2013. Retrieved July 28, 2013.
  264. "64 percent of Muslims in Egypt and Pakistan support the death penalty for leaving Islam, Washington Post, May 1, 2013". Washington Post.
  265. "The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society, April 30 2013" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-03-22.
  266. Arzi, Donna E. (2002). "The Role of Compulsion in Islamic Conversion: Jihad, Dhimma and Ridda". Buffalo Human Rights Law Review. 8: 15–44. OCLC 781621291.
  267. Shafi'i: Rawda al-talibin, 10.7, Hanafi: Ibn 'Abidin: Radd al-muhtar 3.287, Maliki: al-Dardir: al-Sharh al-saghir, 4.435, and Hanbali: al-Bahuti: Kashshaf al-qina', 6.170 (see The Struggle to Constitute and Sustain Productive Orders: Vincent Ostrom's Quest to Understand Human Affairs), Mark Sproule-Jones et al (2008), Lexington Books, ISBN 978-0739126288)
  268. Siddiqui, Muhammad Iqbal (1979). The Penal Law of Islam. Tahore: Kazi. pp. 40–59. OCLC 928154348.
  269. RAHIM, ABDUR. The Principles of Muhammadan Jurisprudence According to the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali Schools (1911), Westport CT, Hyperion Press, see 1981 Reprint
  270. Khadduri 1955, p. .
  271. al-Zuhayli, Wahbah Al-Fiqh, al-Islami wa Adillatuhu, 8 vols., 3rd edition, Dar al-Fikr, Damascus (1989)
  272. Uddin, Asma (2010). "Religious Freedom Implications of Sharia Implementation in Aceh, Indonesia". University of St Thomas Law Journal. 7 (3): 603–48. SSRN 1885776Freely accessible.
  273. Saeed, Abdullah, and Hassan Saeed, eds. Freedom of religion, apostasy and Islam. Ashgate Publishing, 2004.
  274. "Laws: and Iran, GayLawNet". Gaylawnet.com. Retrieved 2012-04-04.
  275. "Laws: Saudi Arabia, GayLawNet". Gaylawnet.com. 2010-11-08. Retrieved 2012-04-04.
  276. "Aceh Passes Stoning Law". The Straits Times. September 14, 2009. Retrieved December 22, 2009.
  277. Rough Guide to South East Asia: Third Edition. Rough Guides. August 2005. p. 74. ISBN 1-84353-437-1.
  278. Diska PutriY, Pamungkas & Dessy Aswim. "Indonesia Still Far From a Rainbow Nation". Retrieved 29 May 2014.
  279. Esack, Farid (2014). "Islam and Gender Justice: Beyond Simplistic Apologia". In Raines, John C.; Maguire, Daniel C. What Men Owe to Women: Men's Voices from World Religions. SUNY. pp. 187–210. ISBN 978-0-7914-9155-3.
  280. Kusha, Hamid R. (2007). "Qur'anic Perspectives on Wife Abuse". In Jackson, Nicky Ali. Encyclopedia of Domestic Violence. Taylor & Francis. pp. 595–602. ISBN 978-0-415-96968-0.
  281. "Surah 4:34 (An-Nisaa), Alim – Translated by Mohammad Asad, Gibraltar (1980)".
  282. Salhi and Grami (2011), Gender and Violence in the Middle East and North Africa, Florence (Italy), European University Institute Archived September 27, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
  283. Rohe, Mathias (2009). "Shari'a in a European Context". In Grillo, Ralpho; Ballard, Roger; Ferrari, Alessandro; Hoekema, André J.; Maussen, Marcel; Shah, Prakash. Legal Practice and Cultural Diversity. Ashgate. pp. 93–114. ISBN 978-0-7546-7547-1.
  284. Funder, Anna (1993). "De Minimis Non Curat Lex: The Clitoris, Culture and the Law". Transnational Law & Contemporary Problems. 3 (2): 417–67.
  285. Anwar, Zainah (2005). "Law-Making in the Name of Islam: Implications for Democratic Governance". In Nathan, K S; Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. Islam in Southeast Asia: Political, Social and Strategic Challenges for the 21st Century. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 121–34. ISBN 978-981-230-283-0.
  286. Bakht, Natasha (2007). "Family Arbitration Using Sharia Law: Examining Ontario's Arbitration Act and its Impact on Women". Muslim World Journal of Human Rights. 1 (1). doi:10.2202/1554-4419.1022. SSRN 1121953Freely accessible.
  287. CEDAW and Muslim Family Laws: In Search of Common Ground. Musawah. 2012.
  288. Brandt, Michele; Kaplan, Jeffrey A. (1995). "The Tension between Women's Rights and Religious Rights: Reservations to Cedaw by Egypt, Bangladesh and Tunisia". Journal of Law and Religion. 12 (1): 105–42. doi:10.2307/1051612. JSTOR 1051612.
  289. "Lebanon – IRIN, United Nations Office of Humanitarian Affairs (2009)". IRINnews.
  290. "UAE: Spousal Abuse never a Right". Human Rights Watch. October 19, 2010.
  291. "Child Marriage is a Death Sentence for Many Young Girls" (PDF). UNICEF. 2012.
  292. Nour, Nawal M. (2006). "Health Consequences of Child Marriage in Africa". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 12 (11): 1644–9. doi:10.3201/eid1211.060510. PMC 3372345Freely accessible. PMID 17283612.
  293. "Kendra Heideman and Mona Youssef, Challenges to Women's Security in the MENA Region, Wilson Center (March, 2013)" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-03-22.
  294. "Sanja Kelly (2010) New Survey Assesses Women's Freedom in the Middle East, Freedom House (funded by US Department of State's Middle East Partnership Initiative)".
  295. Horrie & Chippindale 1991, p. 49.
  296. 1 2 Powers, David S. (1993). "The Islamic Inheritance System: a Socio-Historical Approach". Arab Law Quarterly. 8 (1): 13–29. doi:10.1163/157302593X00285. JSTOR 3381490.
  297. Badawi, Jamal A. (September 1971). "The Status of Women in Islam". Al-Ittihad Journal of Islamic Studies. 8 (2).
  298. Feldman, Noah (March 16, 2008). "Why Shariah?". The New York Times. Retrieved September 17, 2011.
  299. 1 2
    • Bernard Lewis (2002), What Went Wrong?, ISBN 0-19-514420-1, pp. 82–3;
    • Brunschvig. 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam, Brill, 2nd Edition, Vol 1, pp. 13–40.
  300. ([Quran 16:71], [Quran 24:33],[Quran 30:28])
  301. Slavery in Islam BBC Religions Archives
  302. Mazrui, Ali A. (1997). "Islamic and Western Values". Foreign Affairs. 76 (5): 118–32. doi:10.2307/20048203. JSTOR 20048203.
  303. 1 2 Ali, K. (2010). Marriage and slavery in early Islam. Harvard University Press.
  304. Sikainga, Ahmad A. (1996). Slaves Into Workers: Emancipation and Labor in Colonial Sudan. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77694-2.
  305. Tucker, Judith E.; Nashat, Guity (1999). Women in the Middle East and North Africa. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-21264-2.
  306. 1 2 Lovejoy, Paul (2000). Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa. Cambridge University Press. pp. 16–7. ISBN 978-0521784306. The religious requirement that new slaves be pagans and need for continued imports to maintain slave population made Africa an important source of slaves for the Islamic world. (...) In Islamic tradition, slavery was perceived as a means of converting non-Muslims. One task of the master was religious instruction and theoretically Muslims could not be enslaved. Conversion (of a non-Muslim to Islam) did not automatically lead to emancipation, but assimilation into Muslim society was deemed a prerequisite for emancipation.
  307. Jean Pierre Angenot; et al. (2008). Uncovering the History of Africans in Asia. Brill Academic. p. 60. ISBN 978-9004162914. Islam imposed upon the Muslim master an obligation to convert non-Muslim slaves and become members of the greater Muslim society. Indeed, the daily observation of well defined Islamic religious rituals was the outward manifestation of conversion without which emancipation was impossible.
  308. Kecia Ali; (Editor: Bernadette J. Brooten). Slavery and Sexual Ethics in Islam, in Beyond Slavery: Overcoming Its Religious and Sexual Legacies. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 107–19. ISBN 978-0230100169. The slave who bore her master's child became known in Arabic as an "umm walad"; she could not be sold, and she was automatically freed upon her master's death. (page 113)
  309. Hafez, Mohammed (September 2006). "Why Muslims Rebel". Al-Ittihad Journal of Islamic Studies. 1 (2).
  310. Tai, Emily Sohmer (2007). "Book Reviews: Hassan S. Khalilieh, Admiralty and Maritime Laws in the Mediterranean Sea (ca. 800–1050): The "Kitāb Akriyat al-Sufun" vis-à-vis the "Nomos Rhodion Nautikos"". Medieval Encounters. 13 (3): 608–12. doi:10.1163/157006707X222812.
  311. 1 2 3 4 Makdisi, George (1989). "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 109 (2): 175–82. doi:10.2307/604423. JSTOR 604423.
  312. Stewart, Devin J. (2005). "Degrees, or Ijaza". In Josef W. Meri. Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 203.
  313. Kuran, Timur (Fall 2005). "The Absence of the Corporation in Islamic Law: Origins and Persistence". The American Journal of Comparative Law. 53 (4): 785–834. JSTOR 30038724.
  314. Kuran, Timur (2005). "The logic of financial westernization in the Middle East". Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. 56 (4): 593–615. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2004.04.002.
  315. "Why the Middle East Is Economically Underdeveloped – Historical Mechanisms of Institutional Stagnation".

Sources

  • Ghamidi, Javed (2001). Mizan. Dar al-Ishraq. OCLC 52901690. 
  • Glenn, H. Patrick (2014). Legal Traditions of the World – Sustainable Diversity in Law (5th edition), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199669837.
  • Harnischfeger, Johannes (2008). Democratization and Islamic Law – The Sharia Conflict in Nigeria. Frankfurt; New York City: Campus Verlag and Chicago: University of Chicago Press (distributor). ISBN 978-3-593-38256-2.
  • Hudson, A. (2003). Equity and Trusts (3rd ed.). London: Cavendish Publishing. ISBN 1-85941-729-9. 
  • Horrie, Chris; Chippindale, Peter (1991). What Is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction. Virgin Books. ISBN 0-7535-0827-3. 
  • Jackson, Sherman A. (2005). Islam and the Blackamerican – Looking Toward the Third Resurrection. New York City; Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518081-7. 
  • Kafadar, Cemal (1996). Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20600-2.
  • Khadduri, Majid (1955). War and Peace in the Law of Islam. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. OCLC 647084498. 
  • Khadduri, Majid; Liebesny, Herbert J., eds. (1955). Law in the Middle East. Middle East Institute. OCLC 578890367. 
  • Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00807-3. 
  • Makdisi, John A. (June 1999). "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law". North Carolina Law Review. 77 (5): 1, 635, 739. 
  • Makdisi, John (2005). Islamic Property Law: Cases and Materials for Comparative Analysis with the Common Law. Carolina Academic Press. ISBN 1-59460-110-0. 
  • Mumisa, Michael (2002). Islamic Law: Theory & Interpretation. Amana Publications. ISBN 1-59008-010-6.
  • Musa, A. Y. (2008). Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on The Authority Of Prophetic Traditions in Islam, New York: Palgrave.
  • Otto, Jan Michiel (2008). Sharia and National Law in Muslim Countries: Tensions and Opportunities for Dutch and EU Foreign Policy (PDF). Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-8728-048-2. 
  • Otto, Jan Michiel, ed. (2010). Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present. Leiden University Press. ISBN 978-94-0060-017-1. 
  • Safi, Omid (2003). Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1-85168-316-X.
  • Shahin, Omar (2007). The Muslim Family in Western Society: A Study in Islamic Law. Cloverdale Corporation. ISBN 978-1-929569-30-4.
  • Ramadan, Hisham M., ed. (2006). Understanding Islamic Law: From Classical to Contemporary. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-0991-9. 
  • Standke, Corinna (2008). Sharia – The Islamic Law, GRIN Verlag
  • Weeramantry, Christopher (1997). Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering Human Rights. Brill Publishers (via Google Books). ISBN 90-411-0241-8. 
  • Weiss, Bernard G. (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Leiden; Boston: Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-12066-2. 

General

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sharia.
Look up sharia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Sharia
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 12/4/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.