List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes

Category 4 hurricanes are tropical cyclones that reach Category 4 intensity on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale. Category 4 hurricanes that later attained Category 5 strength are not included in this list. The Atlantic basin includes the open waters of the Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. Category 4 is the second-highest hurricane classification category on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale, and storms that are of this intensity maintain maximum sustained winds of 113136 knots (130156 mph, 209251 km/h). Based on the Atlantic hurricane database, 142 hurricanes have attained Category 4 hurricane status since 1851, the start of modern meteorological record keeping. Category 4 storms are considered extreme hurricanes. Hurricane Ike, which was a Category 4 storm, brought on a 24 ft storm surge, the third greatest storm surge ever recorded (after Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Camille, respectively).

Hurricane Eta as a Category 4 hurricane, slowly approaching northwestern Nicaragua on November 3, 2020

Statistics

Wind, Damage, and Storm Surge statistics

Category 4 hurricanes have maximum sustained winds of 113136 knots (130156 mph, 209251 km/h).[1] "Sustained winds" refers to the average wind speed observed over one minute at a height of 10 meters (33 ft) above ground. Gusts can be up to 30% higher than the sustained winds.[2] Mobile homes and other buildings without fixed structures can be completely destroyed, and the lower floors of sturdier structures usually sustain major damage. In addition to the winds, the cyclones generally produce a storm surge of 13–18 feet (4–5.5 m) above normal, potentially causing major beach erosion. Heavy, irreparable damage and/or near complete destruction of gas station canopies and other wide span overhang type structures are also very common, and mobile and manufactured homes are often completely destroyed. Low-level terrain may be flooded well inland, as well.[3] In addition, Category 4 hurricanes are often Cape Verde-type hurricanes. Cape Verde hurricanes are usually the strongest, and their track sometimes points them towards the United States, or other land.[4]

Air pressure statistics

The record high and low statistics for a Category 4 hurricane, in terms of pressure in millibars (mbar) and hectopascals (hPa), are Hurricane Opal of 1995, peaking at a record low of 916 mbar/hPa, and the 1926 Nassau hurricane, peaking at a record high of 967 mbar/hPa. These, on average, are the peaks of a Category 5 major hurricane and a Category 2 hurricane. The average pressure for a Category 4 Atlantic hurricane is between 932 and 945 mbar/hPa, just to delimit boundaries of what pressure a Category 4 hurricane peaks at.

History of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes

The number of Category 4 and 5 hurricanes appears to have nearly doubled in occurrence from 1970 to 2004.[5] It is likely that the increase in Atlantic tropical storm and hurricane frequency is primarily due to improved monitoring.[6][7][8][9][10]

Due to growing population in major coastal cities, many areas have become more vulnerable to strong hurricanes, especially categories 4 and 5.[11]

Meteorological measurements

All of the storms listed in this analysis are listed in chronological order, but they also list the minimum central pressure and maximum sustained winds. Each of these meteorological readings are taken using a specific meteorological instrument. For modern storms, the minimum pressure measurements are taken by Reconnaissance Aircraft using dropsondes, or by determining it from satellite imagery using the Dvorak technique. For older storms, pressures are often incomplete, typically being provided by ship-reports or land-observations. None of these methods can provide constant pressure measurements; thus it is possible the only measurement occurred when the cyclone was at a lesser strength.[12] Sustained winds are taken using an Anemometer at 10 meters (33 ft) above the ground.[13]

Climatology

A total of 94 hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean Basin, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, have reached Category 4 status as their peak intensity. (Note that Category 4 storms that intensified later to Category 5 status are not included in this analysis.)

Most Category 4 hurricanes occur during September, with 51 storms occurring in that month. This coincides with the average peak of the Atlantic hurricane season, which occurs on September 10.[14] Most Category 4 hurricanes develop in the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Several Category 4 hurricanes are Cape Verde-type hurricanes. There have been no Category 4 hurricanes to form in either May or December, or in any other month outside the traditional bounds of the Atlantic hurricane season.

List of Category 4 hurricanes

Listed in chronological order

All data listed is provided by the NHC best track, unless otherwise noted. Also, some pressure readings for the older storms may have been taken at a time other than the storm's peak intensity. Thus, some pressure readings might not be the minimum pressure.

Some pressure readings are unavailable due to scarce information.

Hurricane frequency
Period Number Number per year
1851–1900 13 0.26
1901–1950 29 0.58
1951–1975 22 0.88
1976–2000 24 0.96
2001–2020 29 1.4

1851–1900

Homes in Galveston were reduced to timbers by the hurricane winds and floods caused by the Galveston Hurricane of 1900.

In the years between 1851 and 1900, thirteen Category 4 storms are known to have occurred in the Atlantic Ocean. These numbers are limited by the observation techniques used prior to the use of satellite imagery in the 1960s.

NameSeasonMonthMax. sustained windsMinimum pressure
(Knots)(km/h)(mph)(mbar)
Hurricane #31853August, September130240150924
"1856 Last Island Hurricane"1856August130240150934
Hurricane #61866September, October120220140938
Hurricane #71878September, October120220140938
Hurricane #21880August130240150931
Hurricane #81880September, October120220140928
Hurricane #61882October120220140975
Indianola Hurricane of 18861886August130240150925
Hurricane #101893September, October115215130948
Hurricane #61894October115215130931
1898 Georgia hurricane1898September, October115215130930
1899 San Ciriaco hurricane1899August, September130240150930
Galveston Hurricane of 19001900August, September125230145936
Sources: Atlantic Hurricane Best Track File 1851–2012.[15]

1901–1950

Destruction after the 1930 Dominican Republic Hurricane

Between 1901 and 1950, 29 Category 4 hurricanes formed in the Atlantic Basin.

NameSeasonMonthsMax. sustained windsMinimum pressure
(Knots)(km/h)(mph)(mbar)
Hurricane #41906August, September115215130950
1910 Cuba hurricane1910October130240150924
1915 Galveston hurricane1915August125230145940
1915 New Orleans hurricane1915September, October125230145931
1916 Texas hurricane1916August115215130932
1917 Nueva Gerona hurricane1917September130240150928
1919 Florida Keys hurricane1919September130240150927
1921 Tampa Bay hurricane1921October120220140941
1926 Nassau hurricane1926July, August120220140≤ 967
Hurricane #41926September120220140≤ 957
1926 Miami hurricane1926September130240150930
1926 Havana–Bermuda hurricane1926October130240150934
1929 Bahamas hurricane1929September, October135250155924
1930 Dominican Republic hurricane1930August, September135250155933
1931 Belize hurricane1931September115215130≤ 952
1932 Freeport hurricane1932August130240150935
1932 San Ciprian hurricane1932September125230145943
1933 Chesapeake–Potomac hurricane1933August120220140≤ 940
1933 Treasure Coast hurricane1933August, September120220140945
1933 Outer Banks hurricane1933September120220140≤ 947
Hurricane #21935August115215130≤ 955
1935 Cuba hurricane1935September, October120220140≤ 945
Hurricane #51939October120220140≤ 941
Hurricane #41941September115215130≤ 957
Hurricane #31943August120220140
1944 Great Atlantic hurricane1944September125230145≤ 933
1944 Cuba–Florida hurricane1944October125230145937
1945 Homestead hurricane1945September115215130949
1947 Fort Lauderdale hurricane1947September125230145938
1948 Bermuda–Newfoundland hurricane1948September115215130940
September 1948 Florida hurricane1948September115215130940
1949 Florida hurricane1949August115215130954
Hurricane Dog1950September125230145943
Hurricane Fox1950September120220140946
Hurricane King1950October115215130955
Sources: Atlantic Hurricane Best Track File 1851–2012[15]

1951–1975

Flooding in the Lower Ninth Ward of New Orleans after Betsy.

In the years between 1951 and 1975, there were 23 Category 4 hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean. A dagger () denotes that the storm temporarily weakened below Category 4 intensity during the specified period of time.

List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes from 2001–present
Storm
name
Track Season Dates as a
Category 4
Maximum
sustained winds
Minimum pressure Notes
Hurricane Charlie
1951 August 19 130 mph (215 km/h) 958 mbar (hPa; 28.29 inHg)
Hurricane Easy
1951 September 7–8 150 mph (240 km/h) 937 mbar (hPa; 27.67 inHg)
Hurricane Fox
1952 October 15 145 mph (230 km/h) 934 mbar (hPa; 27.58 inHg)
Hurricane Hazel
1954 October 23–24 130 mph (215 km/h) 938 mbar (hPa; 27.70 inHg)
Hurricane Connie
1955 August 7 140 mph (220 km/h) 944 mbar (hPa; 27.88 inHg)
Hurricane Ione
1955 September 18 140 mph (220 km/h) 938 mbar (hPa; 27.70 inHg)
Hurricane Carrie
1957 September 7–8 140 mph (220 km/h) 945 mbar (hPa; 27.91 inHg)
Hurricane Cleo
1958 August 16 140 mph (220 km/h) 947 mbar (hPa; 27.96 inHg)
Hurricane Daisy
1958 August 28 130 mph (215 km/h) 948 mbar (hPa; 27.99 inHg)
Hurricane Helene
1958 September 27 150 mph (240 km/h) 930 mbar (hPa; 27.46 inHg)
Hurricane Gracie
1959 September 29 140 mph (220 km/h) 950 mbar (hPa; 28.05 inHg)
Hurricane Donna
1960 September 6–10 145 mph (230 km/h) 930 mbar (hPa; 27.46 inHg)
Hurricane Betsy
1961 September 5–6 130 mph (215 km/h) 945 mbar (hPa; 27.91 inHg)
Hurricane Carla
1961 September 10–11 145 mph (230 km/h) 927 mbar (hPa; 27.37 inHg)
Hurricane Frances
1961 October 7 130 mph (215 km/h) 948 mbar (hPa; 27.99 inHg)
Hurricane Flora
1963 October 2–3 150 mph (240 km/h) 933 mbar (hPa; 27.55 inHg)
Hurricane Cleo
1964 August 23–24 150 mph (240 km/h) 938 mbar (hPa; 27.70 inHg)
Hurricane Dora
1964 September 6 130 mph (215 km/h) 942 mbar (hPa; 27.82 inHg)
Hurricane Gladys
1964 September 17 130 mph (215 km/h) 945 mbar (hPa; 27.91 inHg)
Hurricane Hilda
1964 October 1–2 140 mph (220 km/h) 941 mbar (hPa; 27.79 inHg)
Hurricane Betsy
1965 September 4–9 140 mph (220 km/h) 942 mbar (hPa; 27.82 inHg)
Hurricane Inez
1966 September 28–October 9 150 mph (240 km/h) 929 mbar (hPa; 27.43 inHg)
Hurricane Carmen
1974 September 1–7 150 mph (240 km/h) 928 mbar (hPa; 27.40 inHg)
Hurricane Gladys
1975 October 2–3 140 mph (220 km/h) 939 mbar (hPa; 27.73 inHg)
Sources: Atlantic Hurricane Best Track File 1851–2012[15]

1976–2000

In the years between 1976 and 2000, 24 Category 4 hurricanes formed in the basin:

List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes from 2001–present
Storm
name
Track Season Dates as a
Category 4
Maximum
sustained winds
Minimum pressure Notes
Hurricane Ella
1978 September 4 140 mph (220 km/h) 956 mbar (hPa; 28.23 inHg)
Hurricane Greta
1978 September 18 130 mph (215 km/h) 947 mbar (hPa; 27.96 inHg)
Hurricane Frederic
1979 September 12–13 130 mph (215 km/h) 943 mbar (hPa; 27.85 inHg)
Hurricane Harvey
1981 September 14 130 mph (215 km/h) 946 mbar (hPa; 27.94 inHg)
Hurricane Debby
1982 September 18 130 mph (215 km/h) 950 mbar (hPa; 28.05 inHg)
Hurricane Diana
1984 September 11-12 130 mph (215 km/h) 949 mbar (hPa; 28.02 inHg)
Hurricane Gloria
1985 September 24-25 145 mph (230 km/h) 919 mbar (hPa; 27.14 inHg)
Hurricane Helene
1988 September 22-23 145 mph (230 km/h) 938 mbar (hPa; 27.70 inHg)
Hurricane Joan
1988 October 21-22 145 mph (230 km/h) 932 mbar (hPa; 27.52 inHg)
Hurricane Gabrielle
1989 September 4–7 145 mph (230 km/h) 937 mbar (hPa; 27.67 inHg)
Hurricane Claudette
1991 September 7 130 mph (215 km/h) 944 mbar (hPa; 27.88 inHg)
Hurricane Felix
1995 August 12-13 140 mph (220 km/h) 929 mbar (hPa; 27.43 inHg)
Hurricane Luis
1995 September 1-8 150 mph (240 km/h) 935 mbar (hPa; 27.61 inHg)
Hurricane Opal
1995 October 4 150 mph (240 km/h) 916 mbar (hPa; 27.05 inHg)
Hurricane Edouard
1996 August 25-28 145 mph (230 km/h) 933 mbar (hPa; 27.55 inHg)
Hurricane Hortense
1996 September 12–13 140 mph (220 km/h) 935 mbar (hPa; 27.61 inHg)
Hurricane Georges
1998 September 19-20 155 mph (250 km/h) 937 mbar (hPa; 27.67 inHg)
Hurricane Bret
1999 August 22 145 mph (230 km/h) 944 mbar (hPa; 27.88 inHg)
Hurricane Cindy
1999 August 28-29 140 mph (220 km/h) 942 mbar (hPa; 27.81 inHg)
Hurricane Floyd
1999 September 12-14 155 mph (250 km/h) 921 mbar (hPa; 27.2 inHg)
Hurricane Gert
1999 September 15–17 150 mph (240 km/h) 930 mbar (hPa; 27.46 inHg)
Hurricane Lenny
1999 November 17-18 155 mph (250 km/h) 933 mbar (hPa; 27.55 inHg)
Hurricane Isaac
2000 September 28-29 140 mph (220 km/h) 943 mbar (hPa; 27.85 inHg)
Hurricane Keith
2000 October 1 140 mph (220 km/h) 939 mbar (hPa; 27.73 inHg)
Sources: Atlantic Hurricane Best Track File 1851–2012[15]

2001–2020

A beachfront home in Navarre Beach, Florida largely destroyed by Hurricane Dennis in 2005.

In the years between 2001 and 2020, 29 Category 4 hurricanes formed within the confines of the Atlantic Ocean. A dagger () denotes that the storm temporarily weakened below Category 4 intensity during the specified period of time.

List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes from 2001–present
Storm
name
Track Season Dates as a
Category 4
Maximum
sustained winds
Minimum pressure Notes
Hurricane Iris
2001 October 8–9 145 mph (230 km/h) 948 mbar (hPa; 27.99 inHg)
Hurricane Michelle
2001 November 3–4 140 mph (220 km/h) 933 mbar (hPa; 27.55 inHg)
Hurricane Lili
2002 October 2–3 145 mph (230 km/h) 938 mbar (hPa; 27.70 inHg)
Hurricane Fabian
2003 August 31–September 5 145 mph (230 km/h) 939 mbar (hPa; 27.73 inHg)
Hurricane Charley
2004 August 13 150 mph (240 km/h) 941 mbar (hPa; 27.79 inHg)
Hurricane Frances
2004 August 28–September 2 145 mph (230 km/h) 935 mbar (hPa; 27.61 inHg)
Hurricane Karl
2004 September 20–21 145 mph (230 km/h) 938 mbar (hPa; 27.70 inHg)
Hurricane Dennis
2005 July 8–10 150 mph (240 km/h) 930 mbar (hPa; 27.46 inHg)
Hurricane Gustav
2008 August 30–31 155 mph (250 km/h) 941 mbar (hPa; 27.79 inHg)
Hurricane Ike
2008 September 4–8 145 mph (230 km/h) 935 mbar (hPa; 27.61 inHg)
Hurricane Omar
2008 October 16 130 mph (215 km/h) 958 mbar (hPa; 28.29 inHg)
Hurricane Paloma
2008 November 8 145 mph (230 km/h) 944 mbar (hPa; 27.88 inHg)
Hurricane Bill
2009 August 19–20 130 mph (215 km/h) 943 mbar (hPa; 27.85 inHg)
Hurricane Danielle
2010 August 27 130 mph (215 km/h) 942 mbar (hPa; 27.82 inHg)
Hurricane Earl
2010 August 30–September 2 145 mph (230 km/h) 927 mbar (hPa; 27.37 inHg)
Hurricane Igor
2010 September 12–17 155 mph (250 km/h) 924 mbar (hPa; 27.29 inHg)
Hurricane Julia
2010 September 15 140 mph (220 km/h) 948 mbar (hPa; 27.99 inHg)
Hurricane Katia
2011 September 6 140 mph (220 km/h) 942 mbar (hPa; 27.82 inHg)
Hurricane Ophelia
2011 October 2 140 mph (220 km/h) 940 mbar (hPa; 27.76 inHg)
Hurricane Gonzalo
2014 October 15–17 145 mph (230 km/h) 940 mbar (hPa; 27.76 inHg)
Hurricane Joaquin
2015 October 1–3 155 mph (250 km/h) 931 mbar (hPa; 27.64 inHg)
Hurricane Nicole
2016 October 12–13 140 mph (220 km/h) 950 mbar (hPa; 28.05 inHg)
Hurricane Harvey
2017 August 26 130 mph (215 km/h) 937 mbar (hPa; 27.67 inHg)
Hurricane Jose
2017 September 8–10 155 mph (250 km/h) 938 mbar (hPa; 27.70 inHg)
Hurricane Florence
2018 September 5–12 150 mph (240 km/h) 937 mbar (hPa; 27.67 inHg)
Hurricane Laura
2020 August 26–27 150 mph (240 km/h) 937 mbar (hPa; 27.67 inHg)
Hurricane Teddy
2020 September 17–19 140 mph (220 km/h) 945 mbar (hPa; 27.91 inHg)
Hurricane Delta
2020 October 6–7 145 mph (230 km/h) 953 mbar (hPa; 28.14 inHg)
Hurricane Eta
2020 November 2–3 150 mph (240 km/h) 923 mbar (hPa; 27.26 inHg)
Sources: Atlantic Hurricane Best Track File 1851–2012[15]

Listed by month

Landfalls

The following hurricanes made landfall at some location at any strength. Due to inaccuracies in data, tropical depression landfalls are not included. Category 5 hurricanes are also not included in the table below. Several of these storms weakened slightly after attaining Category 4 status as they approached land; this is usually a result of dry air, shallower water due to shelving, cooler waters, or interaction with land.

Name Year
Category 4
Category 3
Category 2
Category 1
Tropical storm
"Last Island"1856Louisiana
"Unnamed"1866Bahamas
"Unnamed"1878Haiti & Turks and Caicos Islands
"Unnamed"1880TexasQuintana RooGuadeloupe
"Unnamed"1882CubaFlorida
Indianola1886TexasDominican Republic & Cuba
Cheniere Caminada1893LouisianaQuintana Roo & Mississippi
Unnamed1894Saint Lucia
Unnamed1898Georgia
San Ciriaco1899Guadeloupe & Puerto RicoBahamas & North Carolina
Galveston (1900)1900TexasAntigua, Nevis, Dominican Republic & Cuba
Unnamed1910CubaFlorida
Galveston (1915)1915TexasJamaicaGuadeloupe
New Orleans1915Louisiana
Florida Keys1919Bahamas & TexasPuerto Rico
Tampa Bay1921Florida
Nassau1926BahamasFlorida
Miami1926Bahamas & FloridaAlabama
Unnamed1926CubaBermuda
Unnamed1929BahamasFloridaFlorida
San Zenón1930Dominican RepublicGuadeloupeCuba & Florida
Unnamed1932Texas
San Ciprian1932Puerto RicoDominican RepublicBelize
Chesapeake–Potomac1933North Carolina
Treasure Coast1933BahamasFlorida
Outer Banks1933North CarolinaNova Scotia
Great Atlantic Hurricane1944New York & Rhode Island
Unnamed1945FloridaBahamasSouth Carolina
Unnamed1948FloridaCuba
Unnamed1949FloridaBahamas
Charlie1951Quintana RooTamaulipasJamaicaDominica
Fox1952CubaBahamasBahamas
Hazel1954North CarolinaHaiti & Turks and Caicos Islands
Connie1955North Carolina
Carrie1957Azores
Helene1958North CarolinaNewfoundland
Gracie1959South Carolina
Donna1960FloridaBarbuda, Anguilla, & BahamasNorth Carolina, New York & Connecticut
Carla1961Texas
Flora1963HaitiTobago & CubaCuba
Cleo1964Guadeloupe & HaitiFloridaCubaGeorgia
Dora1964Florida
Hilda1964Louisiana
Betsy1965LouisianaBahamas & Florida
Inez1966Dominican RepublicGuadeloupe, Cuba & TamaulipasCuba
Carmen1974Quintana RooLouisiana
Greta1978HondurasBelize
Frederic1979AlabamaPuerto Rico, Dominican Republic & Cuba
Diana1984North Carolina
Gloria1985North CarolinaNew York & Connecticut
Joan1988NicaraguaGrenada, Colombia & Venezuela
Luis1995BarbudaNewfoundland
Opal1995FloridaYucatán Peninsula
Hortense1996Puerto Rico & Nova ScotiaGuadeloupe
Georges1998Antigua, Saint Kitts, Puerto Rico & Dominican RepublicFlorida & MississippiCuba
Bret1999Texas
Floyd1999BahamasBahamasNorth Carolinavirginia, New Jersey, New York & Connecticut
Lenny1999Saint MartinAnguillaSaint BarthélemyAntigua
Keith2000Belize & Tamaulipas
Iris2001Belize
Michelle2001CubaBahamas
Lili2002CubaCayman Islands & Louisiana
Charley2004FloridaCubaSouth Carolina
Frances2004BahamasBahamas & FloridaFlorida
Dennis2005CubaFlorida
Gustav2008Cuba (2x)LouisianaHaitiJamaica
Ike2008CubaBahamasTexasCuba
Paloma2008Cuba
Bill2009Newfoundland
Earl2010Nova ScotiaPrince Edward Island
Igor2010Newfoundland
Gonzalo2014BermudaAntigua, Saint Martin & Anguilla
Joaquin2015BahamasBahamas (2x)
Harvey2017TexasTexasBarbados, Saint Vincent & Louisiana
Florence2018North Carolina
Laura2020LouisianaDominican Republic & Cuba (2x)
Delta2020Quintana Roo & Louisiana
Eta 2020 Nicaragua Cuba & Florida (2x)

See also

References

  1. National Hurricane Center (2007). "Saffir-Simpson Scale". National Weather Service. Retrieved 2007-11-09.
  2. Landsea, Chris (2006). "FAQ subject D4". HURDAT. Retrieved 2007-12-17.
  3. National Hurricane Center (June 22, 2006). "Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale Information". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-11-13.
  4. Landsea, Chris (2006). "FAQ subject A2". HURDAT. Retrieved 2007-12-17.
  5. NSF (2005). "severe Hurricanes doubled in the past 35 years". NSF. Retrieved 2013-09-03.
  6. Vecchi, Gabriel. "Historical Changes in Atlantic Hurricane and Tropical Storms". gfdl.noaa. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
  7. Villarini, Gabriele; Vecchi, Gabriel (2011). "Is the recorded increase in short‐duration North Atlantic tropical storms spurious?". Journal of Geophysical Research. 116. doi:10.1029/2010JD015493.
  8. Vecchi, Gabriel; Knutson, Thomas (2011). "Estimating Annual Numbers of Atlantic Hurricanes Missing from the HURDAT Database (1878–1965) Using Ship Track Density". Journal of Climate. 24 (6): 1736–1746. doi:10.1175/2010JCLI3810.1.
  9. Landsea, Christopher; Vecchi, Gabriel (2010). "Impact of Duration Thresholds on Atlantic Tropical Cyclone Counts". Journal of Climate. 23 (10): 2508–2519. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.163.4825. doi:10.1175/2009JCLI3034.1.
  10. Vecchi, Gabriel; Knutson, Thomas (2008). "On Estimates of Historical North Atlantic Tropical Cyclone Activity". Journal of Climate. 21 (14): 3580–3600. doi:10.1175/2008JCLI2178.1.
  11. weather.com - Vulnerable Cities: Index Archived 2007-12-22 at the Wayback Machine
  12. Hock, Terry (2007). "GPS dropsondes". NCAR. Archived from the original on June 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-16.
  13. Federal Emergency Management Agency (2004). "Hurricane Glossary of Terms". Archived from the original on 2005-12-14. Retrieved 2006-03-24. Accessed through the Wayback Machine.
  14. National Hurricane Center (2007-03-08). "Tropical Cyclone Climatology". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2007-11-13.
  15. "Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)" (Database). United States National Hurricane Center. May 25, 2020.
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