Magatama

Magatama, dating from Jōmon period to 8th century

Magatama (勾玉), less frequently (曲玉), are curved, comma-shaped beads that appeared in prehistoric Japan from the Final Jōmon period through the Kofun period, approximately ca. 1,000 BC to the 6th century AD.[1] The beads, also described as jewels, were made of primitive stone and earthen materials in the early period, but by the end of the Kofun period were made almost exclusively of jade. Magatama originally served as decorative jewelry, but by the end of the Kofun period functioned as ceremonial and religious objects.[2] Archaeological evidence suggests that magatama were produced in specific areas of Japan and were widely dispersed through the entirety of the Japanese archipelago by trade routes.[3]

Jōmon period

Magatama first appeared in Japan in the Final Jōmon period, ca. 1000 to 300 BC., and in this period magatama were made from relatively simple, naturally occurring materials, including clay, talc, slate, quartz, gneiss, jadeite, nephrite, and serpentinite.[4] They lack the uniformity of design found in magatama produced in later periods.[2] Magatama from the Jōmon period were irregularly shaped, lacked continuity in form from region to region, and have been called "Stone Age magatama" for this reason.[1][4] Magatama are thought to be an imitation of the teeth of large animals, pierced with a hole, which are found in earlier Jōmon remains.[5] These resemble magatama, but more recent scholarship indicates that these early Jōmon may have simply had a decorative function, and have no relationship to magatama.[4] Magatama in the Jōmon period appear to have moved from the purely decorative to having a status and ceremonial function by the end of the period.[6] A "middle Jōmon exchange network" may have existed, whereby magatama were produced in regions where materials for their manufacture were readily plentiful. Jade and talc examples produced in bead-making villages located in present-day Itoigawa, Niigata have been found at a large number of sites in along the northern coast, central mountains, and Kantō region.[7]

Archaeological sites (Jōmon)

Yayoi period

Agate magatama, Kobe Archaeology Center (神戸市埋蔵文化財センター Kōbeshi Maizō Bunkazai Sentā)

Magatama in the Yayoi period, ca. 300 BC to AD 300, are notably different from Jōmon-period magatama. The jewels moved from a primitive, non-standard form towards more polished and uniform form in this period.[2] The technology to cut large gemstones and polish jewels notably advanced in the Yayoi period.[13] Refined materials such as jadeite, serpentinite, and glass replaced the less sophisticated materials of the Jōmon period.[4] Yayoi period magatama are noted for their reverse C-shaped form, which by the end of the period became an almost squared shape.[4] From the Yayoi period on magatama uniformly feature a bored hole that allowed the jewels to be held on a string.

The Yayoi period is marked by specific centers specializing in magatama and the widespread trade of magatama. The period is marked by the formation of power centers that came to be individual states. The development of weapons increased in this period to protect increasingly developed rice fields and fishing rights. Trade greatly increased in this period, as did the specialization of production of certain items, including magatama. Magatama producing areas exchanged their product with other products, specifically rice, leading to the widespread distribution of magatama across Japan.[14] Magatama were commonly used to create necklaces and bracelets worn on the wrists or ankles. The necklace was typically constructed of jadeite magatama separated by cylindrical bored-holed pieces of jasper. Small beads of dark-blue glass are also not uncommon on the necklace. The bracelet was typically also used shells from the coastal areas of Shikoku and the Inland Sea, wood, and bronze.[15] In this period the use of the mirror, sword, and jewels as status symbols for village, and later regional leaders of all kinds, emerged in the Yayoi period, and point to the origin of the mirror, sword, and magatama as the Imperial Regalia of Japan.[16]

The Records of the Three Kingdoms, the earliest historical document with a reference to Japan, describes the Wa people, an ancient country of Yamataikoku, and its queen, Himiko. The Record indicates that when Himiko died her relative Iyo, a girl of thirteen, was made queen and sent a delegation of twenty officials under Yazuku, an imperial general, to offer tribute to the Northern Wei court.

The delegation visited the capital and ... offered to the court five thousand white gems and two pieces of carved jade, as well as twenty pieces of brocade with variegated designs. (Adapted from Tsunoda and Goodrich, Japan and the Chinese dynastic histories, pp. 8–16)[17]

The carved jade in the Record likely describes a tribute of two jade magatama.

Archaeological sites (Yayoi)

Museum housing artifacts of magatama production, Tamatsukuri Inari Shrine, Osaka

Kofun period

Necklace of jade magatama from a Japanese burial
Magatamas in Kofun period

Magatama became very common in the Kofun period, ca. AD 250 to AD 538, and by the end of the period almost all kofun tumuli contained magatama.[2] In the early Kofun period magatama were made from jadeite as in earlier periods, but by the middle of the period were made from jasper, and by the end of the period, almost exclusively of agate and jade.[4] Magatama capped by silver or gold also appear towards the end of the period. Large magatama made of talc, imitations of smaller ones made of more precious materials, were used as funerary objects.[4] Magatama are found in kofun tumuli across Japan from the period. Their use went from merely decorative to sacred and ceremonial grave goods.[4][21] Chōjigashira magatama (丁字頭勾玉) are magatama with inscriptions that look like flowers of the clove tree and have a hole suitable to attach to a string.[2] These first appear in the Kofun period.[1] In the Kofun period magatama appear on necklaces, with several magatama set between bored cylinders. Archeological remains show evidence of similar ankle bracelets, but they are less common. Clay haniwa funerary objects of the Kofun period commonly depict people wearing the necklaces and ankle bracelets.[22]

Archaeological sites (Kofun)

Examples of stone magatama from the Kofun period are especially numerous.

Origin of magatama forms

Archaeologists and historians are unable yet to explain what the origins of magatama forms are, or whether these forms can be traced back to one convergent source. However, these alternative explanations have been provided:

In Japanese mythology

Artist's rendition of Amaterasu emerging from the cave; Amaterasu holds a magatama necklace in her left hand with a sword

The Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, completed in the 8th century, have numerous references to magatama.[4] They appear in the first chapter of the Nihon Shoki, which largely describes the mythology of Japan. Susanoo, god of the sea and storms, received five hundred magatama from Tamanoya no mikoto, or Ame-no-Futodama-no-mikoto, the jewel-making deity.[29] Susanoo went to heaven and presented them to his sister, the sun goddess Amaterasu, who bit off successive parts of the magatama, and blew them away to create other deities.[30] Tamanoya no mikoto remains the kami god of magatama, glasses, and cameras. In the legend Amaterasu later shuts herself in a cave. Ama-no-Koyane-no-mikoto hung magatama, among other objects, on a five hundred-branch sakaki tree, to successfully lure Amaterasu from the cave.[29][31] In the year 58, in the reign of the Emperor Suinin, the Nihon shoki records that a dog kills and disembowels a mujina, a type of badger, and a magatama was discovered in its stomach. This magatama was presented to Suinin, who enshrined it at Isonokami Shrine, where it is said to presently reside.[32][33] A similar practice is described again in the Nihon shoki during the reign of the Emperor Chūai. Chūai made an inspection trip to the Tsukushi, or Kyūshū, and was presented with an enormous sakaki tree hung with magatama as well as other sacred objects.[34]

Yasakani no Magatama

A noted magatama is the Yasakani no Magatama (八尺瓊勾玉), also (八尺瓊曲玉) and (八坂瓊曲玉), one of the three Imperial Regalia of Japan.[35] Swords, mirrors, and jewels were common objects of status for regional rulers in Japan as early as the Yayoi period,[16] and were further widespread in the Kofun period, as shown by their ubiquitous presence in kofun tumuli.[21] The Yasakani no Magatama is stored at the Kashiko-dokoro (賢所), the central shrine of the Three Palace Sanctuaries at the Tokyo Imperial Palace, and is used in the enthronement ceremony of the Emperor of Japan.[35]

Daniel Clarence Holtom stated in 1928 in Japanese enthronement ceremonies; with an account of the imperial regalia that the Yasakani no Magatama is the only one of the three regalia that exists in its original form;[36] post-World War II scholarship supports the claim. Replicas of the sword and mirror were made as early as the 9th century, and the originals were entrusted to other shrines.[37] The mirror was repeatedly damaged by fire, but its ashes were used to create a replica.[38][39] In 1185 the Taira clan attempted to dump the sword and mirror into the Straits of Shimonoseki at the end of the Battle of Dan-no-ura.[37][38] The sword was lost, but the mirror was recovered by divers.[37][39] Replicas of the sword and mirror are now used in the ceremony.[36]

Usage in Ryūkyūan religion

D. C. Holtom stated that noro priestesses of the Ryūkyū Kingdom wore magatama necklaces early in the 20th century for ceremonial purposes, but provides no other details.[40]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 "Magatama". Kokushi Daijiten (国史大辞典) (in Japanese). Tokyo: Shogakukan. 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-02.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 川出孝雄 (Kawade Hikio), ed. (1959), Nihon rekishi daijiten (日本歴史大辞典) (in Japanese), 17, Tōkyō (東京): Kawade Shōbō Shinsha (河出書房新社), p. 54, OCLC 20762728
  3. ↑ Barnes, Gina Lee (1999), The rise of civilization in East Asia: the archaeology of China, Korea and Japan (1st paperback ed.), New York, N.Y.: Thames and Hudson, ISBN 9780500279748, OCLC 43664418
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Magatama". Nihon Daihyakka Zensho (Nipponika) (日本大百科全書 (ニッポニカ)) (in Japanese). Tokyo: Shogakukan. 2012. Retrieved 2012-03-26.
  5. ↑ "Magatama". Dijitaru daijisen (in Japanese). Tokyo: Shogakukan. 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-01.
  6. ↑ Naumann, Nelly (2000), "From early to middle Jōmon", Japanese prehistory : the material and spiritual culture of the Jōmon period, Asien- und Afrika-Studien der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 6, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, p. 18, ISBN 9783447043298, OCLC 45797690
  7. ↑ Barnes, Gina Lee (1999), The rise of civilization in East Asia: the archaeology of China, Korea and Japan (1st paperback ed.), New York, N.Y.: Thames and Hudson, p. 30, ISBN 9780500279748, OCLC 43664418
  8. ↑ Aikens, C. Melvin; Higuchi, Takayasu (1982). "The Jomon period". Prehistory of Japan. Studies in archaeology. New York: Academic Press. p. 165. ISBN 9780120452804. OCLC 7738449.
  9. ↑ Naumann, Nelly (2000), "Final Jōmon in northeast Japan--the Kamegaoka culture", Japanese prehistory : the material and spiritual culture of the Jōmon period, Asien- und Afrika-Studien der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 6, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, p. 46, ISBN 9783447043298, OCLC 45797690
  10. ↑ Aikens, C. Melvin; Higuchi, Takayasu (1982). "The Jomon period". Prehistory of Japan. Studies in archaeology. New York: Academic Press. p. 173. ISBN 9780120452804. OCLC 7738449.
  11. ↑ Aikens, C. Melvin; Higuchi, Takayasu (1982). "The Jomon period". Prehistory of Japan. Studies in archaeology. New York: Academic Press. p. 181. ISBN 9780120452804. OCLC 7738449.
  12. ↑ Naumann, Nelly (2000), "From early to middle Jōmon", Japanese prehistory : the material and spiritual culture of the Jōmon period, Asien- und Afrika-Studien der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 6, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, p. 15, ISBN 9783447043298, OCLC 45797690
  13. ↑ Saitō, Tadashi (1958), "Seikatsu yōshiki no hatten (生活様式の発展)", Genshi (原始), Nihon zenshi (日本全史) (in Japanese), 1, Tōkyō: Tōkyō Daigaku Shuppankai, p. 82, OCLC 35922174
  14. ↑ Okada, Akio; et al., eds. (1959), "Kuniguni no matomari (国々のまとまり)", Nihon no hajimari (日本のはじまり), Nihon no rekishi (日本の歴史) (in Japanese), 1, Tōkyō: Yomiuri Shinbunsha, p. 110, OCLC 33688869
  15. ↑ Okada, Akio; et al., eds. (1959), "Kawatte kita shakai seikatsu (変わってきた社会生活)", Nihon no hajimari (日本のはじまり), Nihon no rekishi (日本の歴史) (in Japanese), 1, Tōkyō: Yomiuri Shinbunsha, p. 99, OCLC 33688869
  16. 1 2 Okada, Akio; et al., eds. (1959), Nihon no hajimari (日本のはじまり), Nihon no rekishi (日本の歴史) (in Japanese), 1, Tōkyō: Yomiuri Shinbunsha, p. 122, OCLC 33688869
  17. ↑ Tsunoda, Ryunosuke; et al. (1958). "The earliest records of Japan". Sources of Japanese tradition. Records and civilization, sources and studies. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN 0231022549.
  18. ↑ Kidder, J. Edward (2007). Himiko and Japan's elusive chiefdom of Yamatai archaeology, history, and mythology. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 91. ISBN 9780824830359.
  19. ↑ 弥生で最大級のひすい製品　唐古・鍵遺跡出土の勾玉(Japanese)
  20. ↑ Smyers, Karen Ann (1999), "Introducing Inari", The fox and the jewel: shared and private meanings in contemporary Japanese inari worship, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, pp. 23–24, ISBN 9780824820589, OCLC 39523475
  21. 1 2 Okada, Akio; et al., eds. (1959), Nihon no hajimari (日本のはじまり), Nihon no rekishi (日本の歴史) (in Japanese), 1, Tōkyō: Yomiuri Shinbunsha, p. 29, OCLC 33688869
  22. ↑ Holtom, Daniel Clarence (1928), "The jewels", The Japanese enthronement ceremonies; with an account of the imperial regalia, Tokyo: Kyo Bun Kwan, p. 33, OCLC 1983823
  23. ↑ Aikens, C. Melvin; Higuchi, Takayasu (1982). "The Kofun period". Prehistory of Japan. Studies in archaeology. New York: Academic Press. p. 264. ISBN 9780120452804. OCLC 7738449.
  24. 1 2 史跡　産土山古墳(Japanese)
  25. ↑ Aikens, C. Melvin; Higuchi, Takayasu (1982). "The Kofun period". Prehistory of Japan. Studies in archaeology. New York: Academic Press. p. 268. ISBN 9780120452804. OCLC 7738449.
  26. ↑ Aikens, C. Melvin; Higuchi, Takayasu (1982). "The Kofun period". Prehistory of Japan. Studies in archaeology. New York: Academic Press. pp. 275–276. ISBN 9780120452804. OCLC 7738449.
  27. ↑ Aikens, C. Melvin; Higuchi, Takayasu (1982). "Hiraide: village life during the Kofun period". Prehistory of Japan. Studies in archaeology. New York: Academic Press. p. 303. ISBN 9780120452804. OCLC 7738449.
  28. ↑ Inoue, Mitsusada (1965), "Nazo no seiki (なぞの世紀)　", Shinwa kara rekishi he (神話から歴史へ), 日本の歴史 (Nihon no rekishi) (in Japanese), 1 (Shohan ed.), Tōkyō: Chūō Kōronsha, pp. 309–310, OCLC 21390677
  29. 1 2 Czaja, Michael (1974), "The celestial matsuri", Gods of myth and stone: phallicism in Japanese folk religion (1st ed.), New York: Weatherhill, p. 228, ISBN 9780834800953, OCLC 1085538
  30. ↑ Aston, W. G., translator., ed. (1972), "Age of the gods", Nihongi; chronicles of Japan from the earliest times to A.D. 697 (1st Tuttle ed.), Rutland, Vt.: C.E. Tuttle Co., pp. 37–39, ISBN 9780804809849, OCLC 354027
  31. ↑ Aston, W. G., translator., ed. (1972), "Age of the gods", Nihongi; chronicles of Japan from the earliest times to A.D. 697 (1st Tuttle ed.), Rutland, Vt.: C.E. Tuttle Co., p. 40, ISBN 9780804809849, OCLC 354027
  32. ↑ Aston, W. G., translator., ed. (1972), "Suinin", Nihongi; chronicles of Japan from the earliest times to A.D. 697 (1st Tuttle ed.), Rutland, Vt.: C.E. Tuttle Co., pp. 184–185, ISBN 9780804809849, OCLC 354027
  33. ↑ Smyers, Karen Ann (1999), "Symbolizing inari: the jewel", The fox and the jewel: shared and private meanings in contemporary Japanese inari worship, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, p. 126, ISBN 9780824820589, OCLC 39523475
  34. ↑ Aston, W. G., translator., ed. (1972), "Chiuai", Nihongi; chronicles of Japan from the earliest times to A.D. 697 (1st Tuttle ed.), Rutland, Vt.: C.E. Tuttle Co., p. 221, ISBN 9780804809849, OCLC 354027
  35. 1 2 "Imperial regalia". Encyclopedia of Japan. Tokyo: Shogakukan. 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-01.
  36. 1 2 Holtom, Daniel Clarence (1928), "The jewels", The Japanese enthronement ceremonies; with an account of the imperial regalia, Tokyo: Kyo Bun Kwan, p. 55, OCLC 1983823
  37. 1 2 3 "Kurayoshi Plain". Encyclopedia of Japan. Tokyo: Shogakukan. 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-12.
  38. 1 2 "Sanshu no jingi (三種神器)". Kokushi Daijiten (国史大辞典) (in Japanese). Tokyo: Shogakukan. 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-13.
  39. 1 2 (Japanese)
  40. ↑ Holtom, Daniel Clarence (1928), "The jewels", The Japanese enthronement ceremonies; with an account of the imperial regalia, Tokyo: Kyo Bun Kwan, p. 37, OCLC 1983823
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