Quran and violence

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The Quran's teachings on violence and war have long been topics of heated debate. Verses in the text, such as, "Fight in the name of your religion with those who fight against you," seem to many to be unequivocal endorsements of violence.^[1] On the other hand, some scholars argue that such verses of the Quran are interpreted out of context.^[2][3]

Abrogation

Charles Matthews writes that is a "large debate about what the Quran commands as regards the "sword verses" and the "peace verses". According to Matthews, "the question of the proper prioritization of these verses, and how they should be understood in relation to one another, has been a central issue for Islamic thinking about war."^[4]

Prior to the Hijra travel, Muhammad struggled non-violently against his oppressors in Mecca.^[5] It wasn't until after the exile that the Quranic revelations began to adopt a more defensive perspective.^[6]

According to Oliver Leaman, a number of Islamic jurists asserted the primacy of the "sword verses" over the conciliatory verses in specific historical circumstances.^[7] For example, according to Diane Morgan, Ibn Kathir (1301–1372) asserted that the Sword Verse abrogated all peace treaties that had been promulgated between Muhammad and idolaters.^[8]

Modernists reject the abrogating status of the sword verses, which would result in the abrogation (naskh) of numerous Quranic verses that counsel peace and reconciliation.^[9][10]

Peace verses

According to Fawzy Abdelmalek, "many Muslim scholars speak of Islam as a religion of peace and not of violence. They say that the non-Muslims misunderstand the Quran verses about Jihad and the conduct of war in Islam."^[11]

Nissim Rejwan asserts that, "violence and cruelty are not in the spirit of the Quran, nor are they found in the life of the Prophet, nor in the lives of saintly Muslims."^[12]

According to Feisal Abdul Rauf, "the Quran expressly and unambiguously prohibits the use of coercion in faith because coercion would violate a fundamental human right—the right to a free conscience. A different belief system is not deemed a legitimate cause for violence or war under Islamic law. The Quran is categorical on this: "There shall be no compulsion in religion" (2:256); "Say to the disbelievers [that is, atheists, or polytheists, namely those who reject God] "To you, your beliefs, to me, mine" (109:1-6)"^[13]

Charles Mathewes characterizes the peace verses as saying that, "if others want peace, you can accept them as peaceful even if they are not Muslim." As an example, Mathewes cites the second sura which commands believers not to transgress limits in warfare: "fight in God's cause against those who fight you, but do not transgress limits [in aggression]; God does not love transgressors" (2:190).^[4]

Chiba and Schoenbaum argue that Islam "does not allow Muslims to fight against those who disagree with them regardless of belief system", but instead "urges its followers to treat such people kindly".^{[14][15][16][17]} Yohanan Friedmann has argued that the Quran does not promote fighting for the purposes of religious coercion, although the war as described is "religious" in the sense that the enemies of the Muslims are described as "enemies of God" (8:57-62).^[18]

Solomon A. Nigosian has argued that in "duty to halt aggression or to strive for the preservation of Islamic principles", fighting may be involved, where the Quran encourages them to "fight courageously and steadfastly against recalcitrant states, be they Muslim or non-Muslim." He also argues that the "Quranic statement is clear" on the issue of fighting in defence of Islam as "a duty that is to be carried out at all costs", where "God grants security to those Muslims who fight in order to halt or repel aggression".^[19]

According to Chandra Muzaffar, "The Quranic exposition on resisting aggression, oppression and injustice lays down the parameters within which fighting or the use of violence is legitimate. What this means is that one can use the Quran as the criterion for when violence is legitimate and when it is not."^[20]

In the Islamic telling of Cain and Abel, Abel tells his murderous brother that "If thou dost stretch thy hand against me to slay me, it is not for me to stretch my hand against thee to slay thee: for I do fear Allah".^[21] Some scholars, such as Jawdat Said,^[22] have identified this an example of pacifism.^[23]

Various Ahmadis scholars like Muhammad Ali, Maulana Sadr-ud-Din, Basharat Ahmad and also the British orientalist Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner argue that when the Quran's verses are read in context, it clearly appears that the Quran prohibits initial aggression, and allows fighting only in self-defense.^{[24][25][26][27][28]}

Sword verses

According to Dipak Gupta, "much of the religious justification of violence against nonbelievers (Dar ul Kufr) by the promoters of jihad is based on the Quranic "sword verses." ^[29] The Quran contain passages that could be used to glorify or endorse violence.^[30]

Arvind Kumar writes:

The Quran sanctions violence to counter violence. If one studies history of Arab tribes before Islam and fierce fighting they indulged in one would be convinced that the philosophy of passive resistance would not have worked in that environment.^[31]

One example is:

And slay them wherever ye find them, and drive them out of the places whence they drove you out, for persecution is worse than slaughter... and fight them until fitnah is no more, and religion is for Allah.

— Quran 2:191

Quran scholars claim that the textual context of this particular passage is defensive war, even if the historical context was not. The previous verse says:

Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for Allah loveth not transgressors.

— Quran 2:190

This has been used to argue that fighting is only permissible as a form of defence.^[32]

There are two points made in verse 2:191 that may cause some debate. The first is that the killing of others is authorized in the event of "persecution;" ^{[note 1][33]} the second is that fighting may persist until "religion is for Allah" and there is no more "fitnah" (fitnah having many possible interpretations, the most likely being "trial" or "testing").^[34] Quran (2:191-193) ^[35]

Micheline R. Ishay has argued that "the Quran justifies wars for self-defense to protect Islamic communities against internal or external aggression by non-Islamic populations, and wars waged against those who 'violate their oaths' by breaking a treaty".^[36][37][38] Mufti M. Mukarram Ahmed has also argued that the Quran encourages people to fight in self-defence.^[39][40] He has also argued that the Quran has been used to direct Muslims to make all possible preparations to defend themselves against enemies.^[41][42]

At-Tawba 5

Khaled Abou El Fadl asserts that "there is not a single verse in the Quran that calls for an unmitigated, unqualified, or unreserved obligation to fight the unbelievers."^[43] According to Esposito and Mogahed, the Quran balances permission to fight the enemy with a strong mandate for making peace.^[44][45]

Antonie Wessels identifies two verses in the Quran (9:5 and 9:29) that are called "sword verses" though he notes that the word 'sword' does not occur in the Quran.^[46] In particular, verse 9:5 from Surah At-Tawba is known as the Ayat al-sayf, Ayah of the Sword or The Sword Verse.

The Quran, chapter 9 (At-Tawba), verse 5:

But when the forbidden months are past, then fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find them, and seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war); but if they repent, and establish regular prayers and practise regular charity, then open the way for them: for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful.

 — translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali

In order to understand the context, we need to read from verse 1 of this surah. It says that there was a peace treaty between the Muslims and the Mushriks (pagans) of Makkah. This treaty was violated by the Mushriks of Makkah.^[47] A period of four months was given to the Pagans of Makkah to make amends. Otherwise war would be declared against them.^[48] The Qur'an not only says that a Pagan seeking asylum during the battle should be granted refuge, but also that he should be escorted to a secure place.^[49]

The Indian Muslim preacher Zakir Naik refutes this criticism in the above way. He then asks "In the present international scenario, even a kind, peace-loving army General, during a battle, may let the enemy soldiers go free, if they want peace. But which army General will ever tell his soldiers, that if the enemy soldiers want peace during a battle, don’t just let them go free, but also escort them to a place of security?"

According to Reuven Firestone, Ibn Kathir held that four of the "sword verses" refer specifically to "four types of people against whom the Muslims are obligated to fight: 9:5 refers to fighting the idolaters; 9:29 refers to fighting the Scriptuaries until they pay the poll tax; 9:73 refers to fighting those who outwardly appear as Muslims but who actually oppose Muhammad and the community of Islam; and 49:9 refers to fighting Muslims who unjustly oppress other Muslims."^[50]

Patricia Crone states that the famous Verse of the Sword is directed against a particular group accused of oath-breaking and aggression, and exempts those polytheists who remained faithful. Crone states that this verse seems to be based on the rules mentioned above. Here also it is stressed that one must stop when they do.^[51]

Explaining the context of this verse, Quranic Scholars (such as Muhammad Asad and Maulana Muhammad Ali) state that the permission to fight and kill is being given regarding specific tribes already at war with the Muslims who have breached their peace agreements and have attacked the Muslims first.^[24][52]

Oliver Leaman purports that Quran 60.8^[53] implies that "non-Muslims of good will and pacific nature cannot be the targets of war simply on account of their different religious background."^[7]

Al-Baqara 193

The second verse which is also quoted as a reference to violence in Quran is Al-Baqara 193

The Quran, chapter 2 (Al-Baqara), verse 193:

And fight them until persecution is no more, and religion is for Allah. But if they desist, then let there be no hostility except against wrong-doers. — translated by Marmaduke Pickthall

The context can be understood from the hadith.

Narrated Sa'id bin Jubair: "'Abdullah bin 'Umar came to us and we hoped that he would narrate to us a good Hadith. But before we asked him, a man got up and said to him, "O Abu 'Abdur-Rahman! Narrate to us about the battles during the time of the afflictions, as Allah says: And fight them until there is no more afflictions (i.e. no more worshipping of others besides Allah)."^[2:193] Ibn 'Umar said (to the man), "Do you know what is meant by afflictions? Let your mother bereave you! Muhammad used to fight against the pagans, for a Muslim was put to trial in his religion (The pagans will either kill him or chain him as a captive) . His fighting was not like your fighting which is carried on for the sake of ruling."

— Bukhari, Afflictions and the End of the World: Book 9, Volume 88, Hadith 215

Narrated Nafi': During the affliction of Ibn Az-Zubair, two men came to Ibn 'Umar and said, "The people are lost, and you are the son of 'Umar, and the companion of the Prophet, so what forbids you from coming out?" He said, "What forbids me is that Allah has prohibited the shedding of my brother's blood." They both said, "Didn't Allah say, And fight then until there is no more affliction? " He said "We fought until there was no more affliction and the worship is for Allah (Alone while you want to fight until there is affliction and until the worship become for other than Allah."

Narrated Nafi (through another group of sub-narrators): A man came to Ibn 'Umar and said, "O Abu Abdur Rahman! What made you perform Hajj in one year and Umra in another year and leave the Jihad for Allah' Cause though you know how much Allah recommends it?" Ibn 'Umar replied, "O son of my brother! Islam is founded on five principles, i.e. believe in Allah and His Apostle, the five compulsory prayers, the fasting of the month of Ramadan, the payment of Zakat, and the Hajj to the House (of Allah)." The man said, "O Abu Abdur Rahman! Won't you listen to why Allah has mentioned in His Book: 'If two groups of believers fight each other, then make peace between them, but if one of then transgresses beyond bounds against the other, then you all fight against the one that transgresses.^[49:9] and:--" And fight them till there is no more affliction (i.e. no more worshiping of others along with Allah)." Ibn 'Umar said, "We did it, during the lifetime of Allah's Apostle when Islam had only a few followers. A (Muslim) man would be put to trial because of his religion; he would either be killed or tortured. But when the Muslims increased, there was no more afflictions or oppressions."

— Bukhari, Prophetic Commentary on the Qur'an (Tafseer of the Prophet) : Book 6, Volume 60, Hadith 40

Narrated Ibn 'Umar: That a man came to him (while two groups of Muslims were fighting) and said, "O Abu 'Abdur Rahman! Don't you hear what Allah has mentioned in His Book: And if two groups of believers fight against each other...^[49:9] So what prevents you from fighting as Allah has mentioned in His Book?"' Ibn 'Umar said, "O son of my brother! I would rather be blamed for not fighting because of this Verse than to be blamed because of another Verse where Allah says: And whoever kills a believer intentionally...^[4:93] Then that man said, "Allah says: And fight them until there is no more afflictions (worshipping other besides Allah) and the religion (i.e. worship) will be all for Allah (Alone)^[8:39] Ibn 'Umar said, "We did this during the lifetime of Allah's Apostle when the number of Muslims was small, and a (Muslim)man was put to trial because of his religion, the pagans would either kill or chain him; but when the Muslims increased (and Islam spread), there was no persecution."

— Bukhari, Prophetic Commentary on the Qur'an (Tafseer of the Prophet) : Book 6, Volume 60, Hadith 173

The hadiths explains that the verse is against only those who puts Muslims to torture or kill him because of his religion. That is meant by "religion is for Allah", i.e. a believing or not believing in religion should be due to the fear of Allah, not because of the fear of others.

Warfare

The Quran asserts that if the use of force would not have been allowed in curbing the evils by nations, the disruption and disorder caused by insurgent nations could have reached the extent that the places of worship would have become deserted and forsaken. As it states:

...And were it not that Allah checks the people, some by means of others, there would have been demolished monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques in which the name of Allah is much mentioned. And Allah will surely support those who support Him...

— Quran 22:40

Javed Ahmed Ghamidi divides just warfare into two types:

1. Against injustice and oppression
2. Against the rejecters of truth after it has become evident to them

The first type of Jihad is generally considered eternal, but Ghamidi holds that the second is specific to people who were selected by God for delivering the truth as an obligation. They are called witnesses of the truth (Arabic:شهادة, see also Itmam al-hujjah); the implication being that they bear witness to the truth before other people in such a complete and ultimate manner that no one is left with an excuse to deny the truth.^[54] There is a dispute among Islamic jurists as to whether the act of being "witness" was only for the Companions of Muhammad or whether this responsibility is still being held by modern Muslims, which may entitle them to take actions to subdue other Non-Muslim nations. Proponents of Companions of Muhammad as being "the witness" translate the following verse only for the Companions^[54] while others translate it for the whole Muslim nation.^[55] As in Quran:

And similarly [O Companions of the Prophet!] We have made you an intermediate group^[56] so that you be witnesses [to this religion] before the nations, and the Messenger be such a witness before you.

— Quran,

Similarly, proponents of the companions of Muhammad as being "the witness" present following verse to argue that the companions were chosen people as witnesses just as God chooses Messengers from mankind. As in Quran:^[54]

And strive in His cause as ye ought to strive, (with sincerity and under discipline). He has chosen you, and has imposed no difficulties on you in religion; it is the religion of your father Abraham. It is He Who has named you Muslims, both before and in this [Quran]: [He chose you so that] the Messenger may be a witness [of this religion] to you, and you be witnesses of this religion to non-Muslims [of your times].

— Quran, ^{[Quran 22:78]}

Following is the first verse of the Quran in which the Companions of Muhammad, who had migrated from Mecca, were given permission to fight back if they were attacked:^[54]

Permission to take up arms is hereby given to those who are attacked because they have been oppressed – Allah indeed has power to grant them victory – those who have been unjustly driven from their homes, only because they said: "Our Lord is Allah".

— Quran, ^{[Quran 22:39]}

The reason for this directive in Medina instead of Mecca considered by most Muslim scholars is that without political authority armed offensives become tantamount to spreading disorder and anarchy in the society. As one of Islamic jurist writes:

Among Kafayah obligations, the third category is that for which the existence of a ruler is necessary e.g., Jihad and execution of punishments. Therefore, only a ruler has this prerogative. Because, indeed, no one else has the right to punish another person.

— Sayyid Sabiq, Fiqhu’l-Sunnah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Fikr, 1980), p. 30

Directive

The directive of the Jihad given to Muslims in Quran is:^[54]

These verses told Muslims that they should not merely fight the Banu Quraish if they resist them in offering Hajj, but the Quran goes on to say that they should continue to fight them until persecution is uprooted and Islam prevails in the whole of Arabia. Initially Muslims were required to fulfill this responsibility even if the enemy was 10 times stronger. Afterwards, the Quran reduced the burden of this responsibility.^[54] As in Quran:

Prophet! Rouse the believers to wage war. If there are twenty amongst you, patient and persevering, they will subdue two hundred: if a hundred, they will subdue a thousand of the disbelievers: for these are a people without understanding.

— Quran, ^{[Quran 8:65]}

[From] now, God has lightened your [task] for He knows that there is now weakness amongst you: But [ever so], if there are a hundred of you, patient and persevering, they will subdue two hundred, and if a thousand, they will subdue two thousand, with the leave of God: for God is with those who patiently persevere.

— Quran, ^{[Quran 8:66]}

Some interpret above verses that Jihad never becomes obligatory unless the military might of the Muslims reaches a certain level. In the times of Muhammad, when large scale conversions took place in the later phase, the Quran reduced the Muslim to enemy ratio to 1:2. It seems that Muslims should not only consolidate their moral character, but it is also imperative for them to build their military might if they want to wage Jihad when the need arises. The Quran gave a similar directive to Muslims of Muhammad times in the following words:^[54]

Muster against them all the men and cavalry at your disposal so that you can strike terror into the enemies of Allah and of the believers and others beside them who may be unknown to you, though Allah knows them. And remember whatever you spend for the cause of Allah shall be repaid to you. You shall not be wronged.

— Quran, ^{[Quran 8:60]}

Other scholars consider the later command of ratio 1:2 only for a particular time.^[57]

A policy was adopted regarding the extent of requirement that arose in wars that the Muslims had to fight. In the battles of Badr, Uhud and Tabuk, the responsibility was much more and each Muslim was required to present his services as a combatant.^[54] As in Quran:

Not equal are those of the believers who sit [at home] without any [genuine] excuse and those who strive hard and fight in the cause of Allah with their wealth and their lives. Allah has given preference by a degree to those who strive hard and fight with their wealth and their lives above those who sit [at home]. [In reality], for each, Allah has made a good promise and [in reality] Allah has preferred those who strive hard and fight above those who sit [at home] by a huge reward. Degrees of [higher] grades from Him and forgiveness and mercy. And Allah is Ever Forgiving, Most Merciful.

— Quran, ^{[Quran 4:95]}

Quran also states that turning backs in the battle field, except for tactical purposes, is a big sin and will bring wrath of God.^[58] As in Quran:

O you who believe! when you meet those who disbelieve marching for war, then turn not your backs to them. And whoever shall turn his back to them on that day-- unless he turn aside for the sake of fighting or withdraws to a company-- then he, indeed, becomes deserving of Allah's wrath, and his abode is hell; and an evil destination shall it be.

— Quran, ^{[Quran 8:15]}

Driving force

Islamic scholars agree that Jihad should not be undertaken to gratify one’s whims nor to obtain wealth and riches. Many also consider that it must also not be undertaken to conquer territories and rule them or to acquire fame or to appease the emotions of communal support, partisanship and animosity. On the contrary, it should be undertaken only and only for the cause of Allah as is evident from the words.^[54] As in Quran:

Those who believe, fight in the cause of Allah, and those who disbelieve, fight in the cause of Satan. So fight you against the friends of Satan. Ever feeble indeed is the plot of Satan.

— Quran, ^{[Quran 4:76]}

Muhammad, at various instances, also explained very forcefully this purport of the Quran:

• Abu Musa Ash‘ari narrates that once a person came to Muhammad and said that some people fight for the spoils of war, some for fame and some to show off their valor; he then asked Muhammad: "Which one of them fights in the way of Allah". Muhammad replied: "Only that person fights in the way of Allah who sets foot in the battlefield to raise high the name of Allah". Sahih Bukhari 2810
• Abu Hurayrah narrates from Muhammad: "I swear by the Almighty that a person who is wounded in the way of Allah – and Allah knows full well who is actually wounded in His way – he would be raised on the Day of Judgement such that his colour be the colour of blood with the fragrance of musk around him". Sahih Bukhari 2803
• Ibn Jabr narrates from Muhammad: "A person whose feet become dust ridden because of [striving] in the way of Allah will never be touched by the flames of Hell". Sahih Bukhari 2811
• Sahal Ibn Sa‘ad says that Muhammad once said: "To reside in a border area for a day to protect [people] against an enemy [invasion] is better than this world and everything it has". Sahih Bukhari 2892.

Similarly as a reward for participation in such a strive, the Quran states:

Consider not those who are killed in the way of Allah as dead. Nay, they are alive with their Lord, and they will be provided for. They rejoice in what Allah has bestowed upon them of His bounty and rejoice for the sake of those who have not yet joined them, but are left behind [not yet martyred] that on them too no fear shall come, nor shall they grieve. They rejoice in a grace and a bounty from Allah, and that Allah will not waste the reward of the believers..

— Quran, ^{[Quran 3:169]}

Ethical limits

Islamic Law, based upon the Quran and practices of Muhammad has set down a set of laws to be observed during the lesser Jihad.

Quran forbids fighting in sacred month and similarly within the boundaries of Haram. But if non-Muslims disregard these sanctities, Muslims are asked to retaliate in equal measure.^[59] It is stated in Quran:

A sacred month for a sacred month; [similarly] other sacred things too are subject to retaliation. So if any one transgresses against you, you should also pay back in equal coins. Have fear of Allah and [keep in mind that] Allah is with those who remain within the bounds [stipulated by religion].

— Quran, ^{[Quran 2:194]}

Observance of treaties and pacts is stressed in Quran. When some Muslims were still in Mecca, and they could not migrate to Medina, the Quran stated:

And to those who accepted faith but did not migrate [to Madinah], you owe no duty of protection to them until they migrate; but if they seek your help in religion, it is your duty to help them except against a people with whom you have a treaty of mutual alliance; and Allah is the All-Seer of what you do.

— Quran, ^{[Quran 8:72]}

Similar reports are attributed to Muhammad:

• Abu Sa‘id narrates from Muhammad: "On the Day of Judgment, to proclaim the traitorship of a traitor and the betrayal of a person who betrayed his words, a flag shall be hoisted which would be as high as [the extent of his] traitorship", and Muhammad also said: "Remember that no traitor and betrayer of promises is greater than the one who is the leader and ruler of people". Sahih Muslim 1738

The basic principle in fighting in the Quran is that other communities should be treated as one's own. Fighting is justified for legitimate self-defense, to aid other Muslims and after a violation in the terms of a treaty, but should be stopped if these circumstances cease to exist.^{[2][51][60][61]} The principle of forgiveness is reiterated in between the assertions of the right to self-defence.^[51]

During his life, Muhammad gave various injunctions to his forces and adopted practices toward the conduct of war. The most important of these were summarized by Muhammad's companion, Abu Bakr, in the form of ten rules for the Muslim army:

Stop, O people, that I may give you ten rules for your guidance in the battlefield. Do not commit treachery or deviate from the right path. You must not mutilate dead bodies. Neither kill a child, nor a woman, nor an aged man. Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, especially those which are fruitful. Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food. You are likely to pass by people who have devoted their lives to monastic services; leave them alone.

— Abu Bakr, ^[62]

These injunctions were honored by the second Caliph, Umar, during whose reign (634–644) important Muslim conquests took place.^[63] These principles were also honoured during the Crusades, as exemplified by sultans such as Saladin and al-Kamil. For example, after al-Kamil defeated the Franks during the Crusades, Oliverus Scholasticus praised the Islamic laws of war, commenting on how al-Kamil supplied the defeated Frankish army with food:^[64]

"Who could doubt that such goodness, friendship and charity come from God? Men whose parents, sons and daughters, brothers and sisters, had died in agony at our hands, whose lands we took, whom we drove naked from their homes, revived us with their own food when we were dying of hunger and showered us with kindness even when we were in their power."

— Oliverus Scholasticus, ^[65]

During the Battle of Siffin, the Caliph Ali stated that Islam does not permit Muslims to stop the supply of water to their enemy.^[66] In addition to the Rashidun Caliphs, hadiths attributed to Muhammad himself suggest that he stated the following regarding the Muslim conquest of Egypt:

"You are going to enter Egypt a land where qirat (money unit) is used. Be extremely good to them as they have with us close ties and marriage relationships. When you enter Egypt after my death, recruit many soldiers from among the Egyptiansbecause they are the best soldiers on earth, as they and their wives are permanently on duty until the Day of Resurrection. Be good to the Copts of Egypt; you shall take them over, but they shall be your instrument and help. Be Righteous to God about the Copts."^[67]

The early Islamic treatises on international law from the 9th century onwards covered the application of Islamic economic jurisprudence, ethics and military jurisprudence to international law,^[68] and were concerned with a number of modern international law topics, including the law of treaties; the treatment of diplomats, hostages, refugees and prisoners of war; the right of asylum; conduct on the battlefield; protection of women, children and non-combatant civilians; contracts across the lines of battle; the use of poisonous weapons; and devastation of enemy territory.^[64]

Objectives

According to verses ^{[Quran 8:39]}, the Quran implies two objectives:^[54]

1. Uproot fitnah (فتنة) or persecution (some scholars argue that the word fitnah means Shirk^[69] )
2. Establish supremacy of God, through Islam, in the Arabian Peninsula

Against persecution

Directives for action against persecution and unbelief:

And fight them on until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in Allah altogether and everywhere; but if they cease, verily Allah doth see all that they do.

— Quran (translator: Yusuf Ali), ^{[Quran 8:39]}

Also Sura 4 verses 71-76 say:

O you who believe! Take your precautions, and either go forth (on an expedition) in parties, or go forth all together. There is certainly among you he who would linger behind (from fighting in Allah's Cause). If a misfortune befalls you, he says, "Indeed Allah has favoured me in that I was not present among them." But if a bounty (victory and booty) comes to you from Allah, he would surely say - as if there had never been ties of affection between you and him - "Oh! I wish I had been with them; then I would have achieved a great success ( a good share of booty)." Let those (believers) who sell the life of this world for the Hereafter fight in the Cause of Allah, and whoso fights in the Cause of Allah, and is killed or gets victory, We shall bestow on him a great reward. And what is wrong with you that you fight not in the Cause of Allah, and for those weak, ill-treated and oppressed among men, women, and children, whose cry is: "Our Lord! Rescue us from this town whose people are oppressors; and raise for us from You one who will protect, and raise for us from You one who will help." Those who believe, fight in the Cause of Allah, and those who disbelieve, fight in the cause of Taghut (Satan, etc.). So fight you against the friends of Shaitan (Satan); Ever feeble indeed is the plot of Shaitan (Satan).

— Quran (translator: Muhsin Khan), ^{[Quran 4:71]}

Most Muslim scholars consider it an eternal directive and believe that all types of oppression should be considered under this directive.^[54][70] Similarly, if a group of Muslims commit unwarranted aggression against some of their brothers and does not desist from it even after all attempts of reconciliation, such a group according to the Quran should be fought with:

And if two parties or groups among the believers start fighting, then make peace between them both. But if one of them outrages against the other, then fight you against the one which outrages till it complies with the command of Allah. Then if it complies, make reconciliation between them justly, and be equitable. Verily! Allah loves those who are the equitable. The believers are brothers to one another. So make reconciliation between your brothers, and fear Allah that you may receive mercy.

— Quran, ^{[Quran 49:9]}

Supremacy of Islam

It is stated in Quran:

Indeed those who are opposing Allah and His Messenger are bound to be humiliated. The Almighty has ordained: ‘‘I and My Messengers shall always prevail’’. Indeed Allah is Mighty and Powerful.

— Quran, ^{[Quran 58:20]}

It is He who has sent His Messenger with guidance and the religion of truth to manifest it over all religion, although they who associate others with Allah dislike it.

— Quran, ^{[Quran 9:33]}

After Itmam al-hujjah (clarification of religion to the addressees in its ultimate form), Jews were subdued first, and had been granted amnesty because of various pacts. Those among them who violated these pacts were given the punishment of denying a Messenger of God.^[54] Muhammad exiled the tribe of Banu Qaynuqa to Khyber and that of Banu Nadir to Syria.^[71] The power they wielded at Khyber was crushed by an attack at their strongholds.^[71] Prior to this, Abu al-Rafi and Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf were put to death in their houses.^[72][73] The tribe of Banu Qurayza was guilty of treachery and disloyalty in the battle of the Ahzab.^[74] When my butts of war dispersed and the chances of an external attack no longer remained, Muhammad laid siege around them. When no hope remained, they asked Muhammad to appoint Sa'd ibn Mua'dh as an arbitrator to decide their fate. Their request was accepted. Since, at that time, no specific punishment had been revealed in the Quran about the fate of the Jews, Sa'd ibn Mua'dh announced his verdict in accordance with the Torah. As per the Torah, the punishment in such situations was that all men should be put to death; the women and children should be made slaves and the wealth of the whole nation should be distributed among the conquerors.^[75][76] In accordance with this verdict pronounced, all men were executed.^[77] John Esposito writes that Muhammad's use of warfare in general was alien neither to Arab custom nor to that of the Hebrew prophets, as both believed that God had sanctioned battle with the enemies of the Lord.^[78]

No other incident of note took place regarding the Jews until the revelation of At-Tawba, the final judgement, was declared against them:^[54]

Fight those who believe not in Allah or the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which has been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the Religion of Truth, from among the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizyah with willing submission and are subdued.

— Quran, ^{[Quran 9:29]}

This directive related to both the Jews and the Christians. The punishment mentioned in these verses is a show of lenience to them because they were originally adherents to monotheism. The story holds that they did not benefit from this lenience because, after Muhammad's death, they once again resorted to fraud and treachery.^{[79][80][81][82]} Consequently, the Jews of Khyber and the Christians of Najran were exiled once and for all from the Arabian peninsula by Umar. This exile actually fulfilled the following declaration of the Quran about them:^[54]

And had it not been that Allah had decreed exile for them, He would certainly have punished them in this world; and in the Hereafter theirs shall be the torment of the Fire.

— Quran, ^{[Quran 59:3]}

When the polytheists of Arabia had been similarly subdued, it was proclaimed in At-Tawba that in future no pact would be made with them. They would be given a final respite of four months and then they would be humiliated in retribution of their deeds and would in no way be able to escape from this punishment. After this time limit, the declaration is made in the Quran:^[54]

And a declaration should be made from Allah and His Messenger to these people on the day of the great Hajj that Allah is free from [all] obligations to these Idolaters and so is His Messenger. So if you [O Idolaters!] repent, it is better for you, but if you turn away, then know that you cannot escape from the grasp of Allah. And give tidings [O Muhammad] of a painful torment to these disbelievers. Except those of these Idolaters with whom you have a treaty, and who have not shown treachery in it nor have supported anyone against you. So fulfill their treaty to the end of their term. Indeed, Allah loves those who abide by the limits. Then when the sacred months [after the Hajj] have passed, kill these Idolaters wherever you find them, and capture them and besiege them, and lie in wait for them in each and every ambush. But if they repent and establish the prayer, and give Zakah, then leave them alone. Indeed, Allah is Ever Forgiving, Most Merciful.

— Quran, ^[Quran 9:3]

After the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, Muhammad himself singled out nations by writing letters to them. In all, they were written to the heads of eight countries.^[83] Consequently, after consolidating their rule in the Arabian peninsula, the Companions launched attacks against these countries giving them two options if they wanted to avoid war: to accept faith or to become a dhimmi by paying the Jizya. None of these nations were considered to be adherents to polytheism, otherwise they would have been treated in the same way as the Idolaters of Arabia.^[54]

Battle of Badr

Since their emigration from Mecca (622), the Muslims in Medina had depended for economic survival on constant raids on Meccan caravans. When word of a particularly wealthy caravan escorted by Abū Sufyān, head of the Umayyad clan, reached Muhammad, a raiding party of about 300 Muslims, to be led by Muhammad himself, was organized. By filling the wells on the caravan route near Medina with sand, the Muslims lured Abū Sufyān’s army to battle at Badr, near Medina, in March 624. Despite the superior numbers of the Meccan forces (about 1,000 men), the Muslims scored a complete victory, and many prominent Meccans were killed. The success at Badr was recorded in the Qurʾān as a divine sanction of the new religion: "It was not you who slew them, it was God…in order that He might test the Believers by a gracious trial from Himself" (8:17).^[84]

Surprise attack

The Qur'an commands Muslims to make a proper declaration of war prior to the commencement of military operations. Thus, surprise attacks are illegal under the Islamic jurisprudence. The Qur'an had similarly commanded Muhammad to give his enemies, who had violated the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, a time period of four months to reconsider their position and negotiate.^[85] This rule, however, is not binding if the adversary has already started the war.^[86] Forcible prevention of religious practice is considered as an act of war in Islam.^[87]

Military campaigns

Near the end of his life, Muhammad directed military campaigns against a Ghassanid chief for taking the life of a Muslim emissary. Muhammad's companion and first Caliph, Abu Bakr commanded the following uncompromising rules of war:

O people! I charge you with ten rules; learn them well!

Stop, O people, that I may give you ten rules for your guidance in the battlefield. Do not commit treachery or deviate from the right path. You must not mutilate dead bodies. Neither kill a child, nor a woman, nor an aged man. Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, especially those which are fruitful. Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food. You are likely to pass by people who have devoted their lives to monastic services; leave them alone.^[88]

Muhammad knew that some cities would resist and others would not. He left instructions to his people for dealing with each case:

The Messenger of Allah said: If you come to a township (which has surrendered without a formal war) and stay therein, you have a share (that will be in the form of an award) in (the properties obtained from) it. If a township disobeys Allah and His Messenger (and actually fights against the Muslims) one-fifth of the booty seized therefrom is for Allah and His Apostle and the rest is for you. (Sahih Muslim 4346)

See also

• Islam and violence
• Religion and peacebuilding
• Dar al-Harb

Notes

Killing innocent civilians is an evil act:

And when they commit evil acts, they say, we found our fathers doing it, and Allah has ordered us to do it. Say, Allah does not order evil! Do you attribute to Allah, about which you know nothing?

— Qur'an, Sura 7 (al-A`raf ), Ayah 28^[89]

References