Perfect number

For the 2012 film, see Perfect Number (film).

Demonstration, with Cuisenaire rods, of the perfection of the number 6

In number theory, a perfect number is a positive integer that is equal to the sum of its proper positive divisors, that is, the sum of its positive divisors excluding the number itself (also known as its aliquot sum). Equivalently, a perfect number is a number that is half the sum of all of its positive divisors (including itself) i.e. σ₁(n) = 2n.

This definition is ancient, appearing as early as Euclid's Elements (VII.22) where it is called τέλειος ἀριθμός (perfect, ideal, or complete number). Euclid also proved a formation rule (IX.36) whereby $q(q+1)/2$ is an even perfect number whenever $q$ is a prime of the form $2^{p}-1$ for prime $p$ —what is now called a Mersenne prime. Much later, Euler proved that all even perfect numbers are of this form.^[1] This is known as the Euclid–Euler theorem.

It is not known whether there are any odd perfect numbers, nor whether infinitely many perfect numbers exist.

Examples

The first perfect number is 6, because 1, 2, and 3 are its proper positive divisors, and 1 + 2 + 3 = 6. Equivalently, the number 6 is equal to half the sum of all its positive divisors: ( 1 + 2 + 3 + 6 ) / 2 = 6. The next perfect number is 28 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14. This is followed by the perfect numbers 496 and 8128 (sequence A000396 in the OEIS).

History

In about 300 BC Euclid showed that if 2^p−1 is prime then (2^p−1)2^p−1 is perfect. The first four perfect numbers were the only ones known to early Greek mathematics, and the mathematician Nicomachus had noted 8128 as early as 100 AD.^[2] Philo of Alexandria in his first-century book "On the creation" mentions perfect numbers, claiming that the world was created in 6 days and the moon orbits in 28 days because 6 and 28 are perfect. Philo is followed by Origen,^[3] and by Didymus the Blind, who adds the observation that there are only four perfect numbers that are less than 10,000. (Commentary on Genesis 1. 14-19).^[4] St Augustine defines perfect numbers in City of God (Part XI, Chapter 30) in the early 5th century AD, repeating the claim that God created the world in 6 days because 6 is the smallest perfect number. The Egyptian mathematician Ismail ibn Fallūs (1194–1252) mentioned the next three perfect numbers (33,550,336, 8,589,869,056 and 137,438,691,328) and listed a few more which are now known to be incorrect.^[5] In a manuscript written between 1456 and 1461, an unknown mathematician recorded the earliest European reference to a fifth perfect number, with 33,550,336 being correctly identified for the first time.^[6]^[7] In 1588, the Italian mathematician Pietro Cataldi also identified the sixth (8,589,869,056) and the seventh (137,438,691,328) perfect numbers, and also proved that every perfect number obtained from Euclid's rule ends with a 6 or an 8.^[8]^[9]^[10]

Even perfect numbers

See also: Euclid–Euler theorem

Unsolved problem in mathematics:

Are there infinitely many perfect numbers?
(more unsolved problems in mathematics)

Euclid proved that 2^p−1(2^p − 1) is an even perfect number whenever 2^p − 1 is prime (Euclid, Prop. IX.36).

For example, the first four perfect numbers are generated by the formula 2^p−1(2^p − 1), with p a prime number, as follows:

for p = 2: 2¹(2² − 1) = 6

for p = 3: 2²(2³ − 1) = 28

for p = 5: 2⁴(2⁵ − 1) = 496

for p = 7: 2⁶(2⁷ − 1) = 8128.

Prime numbers of the form 2^p − 1 are known as Mersenne primes, after the seventeenth-century monk Marin Mersenne, who studied number theory and perfect numbers. For 2^p − 1 to be prime, it is necessary that p itself be prime. However, not all numbers of the form 2^p − 1 with a prime p are prime; for example, 2¹¹ − 1 = 2047 = 23 × 89 is not a prime number.^[11] In fact, Mersenne primes are very rare—of the 9,592 prime numbers p less than 100,000,^[12] 2^p − 1 is prime for only 28 of them.

Nicomachus (60-120 AD) conjectured that every perfect number is of the form 2^p−1(2^p − 1) where 2^p − 1 is prime.^[13] Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) circa 1000 AD conjectured that every even perfect number is of that form.^[14] It was not until the 18th century that Leonhard Euler proved that the formula 2^p−1(2^p − 1) will yield all the even perfect numbers. Thus, there is a one-to-one correspondence between even perfect numbers and Mersenne primes; each Mersenne prime generates one even perfect number, and vice versa. This result is often referred to as the Euclid–Euler theorem. As of January 2016, 49 Mersenne primes are known,^[15] and therefore 49 even perfect numbers (the largest of which is 2^74207280 × (2^74207281 − 1) with 44,677,235 digits).

An exhaustive search by the GIMPS distributed computing project has shown that the first 44 even perfect numbers are 2^p−1(2^p − 1) for

p = 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61, 89, 107, 127, 521, 607, 1279, 2203, 2281, 3217, 4253, 4423, 9689, 9941, 11213, 19937, 21701, 23209, 44497, 86243, 110503, 132049, 216091, 756839, 859433, 1257787, 1398269, 2976221, 3021377, 6972593, 13466917, 20996011, 24036583, 25964951, 30402457, and 32582657 (sequence A000043 in the OEIS).^[16]

Five higher perfect numbers have also been discovered, namely those for which p = 37156667, 42643801, 43112609, 57885161, and 74207281, though there may be others within this range. It is not known whether there are infinitely many perfect numbers, nor whether there are infinitely many Mersenne primes.

As well as having the form 2^p−1(2^p − 1), each even perfect number is the (2^p − 1)th triangular number (and hence equal to the sum of the integers from 1 to 2^p − 1) and the 2^p−1th hexagonal number. Furthermore, each even perfect number except for 6 is the ((2^p + 1)/3)th centered nonagonal number and is equal to the sum of the first 2^(p−1)/2 odd cubes:

{\begin{aligned}6&=2^{1}(2^{2}-1)&&=1+2+3,\\[8pt]28&=2^{2}(2^{3}-1)&&=1+2+3+4+5+6+7=1^{3}+3^{3},\\[8pt]496&=2^{4}(2^{5}-1)&&=1+2+3+\cdots +29+30+31\\&&&=1^{3}+3^{3}+5^{3}+7^{3},\\[8pt]8128&=2^{6}(2^{7}-1)&&=1+2+3+\cdots +125+126+127\\&&&=1^{3}+3^{3}+5^{3}+7^{3}+9^{3}+11^{3}+13^{3}+15^{3},\\[8pt]33550336&=2^{12}(2^{13}-1)&&=1+2+3+\cdots +8189+8190+8191\\&&&=1^{3}+3^{3}+5^{3}+\cdots +123^{3}+125^{3}+127^{3}.\end{aligned}}

Even perfect numbers (except 6) are of the form

T_{2^{p}-1}=1+{\frac {(2^{p}-2)\times (2^{p}+1)}{2}}=1+9\times T_{(2^{p}-2)/3}

with each resulting triangular number (after subtracting 1 from the perfect number and dividing the result by 9) ending in 3 or 5, the sequence starting with 3, 55, 903, 3727815, ....^[17] This can be reformulated as follows: adding the digits of any even perfect number (except 6), then adding the digits of the resulting number, and repeating this process until a single digit (called the digital root) is obtained, always produces the number 1. For example, the digital root of 8128 is 1, because 8 + 1 + 2 + 8 = 19, 1 + 9 = 10, and 1 + 0 = 1. This works with all perfect numbers 2^p−1(2^p − 1) with odd prime p and, in fact, with all numbers of the form 2^m−1(2^m − 1) for odd integer (not necessarily prime) m.

Owing to their form, 2^p−1(2^p − 1), every even perfect number is represented in binary as p ones followed by p − 1 zeros:

6₁₀ = 110₂

28₁₀ = 11100₂

496₁₀ = 111110000₂

8128₁₀ = 1111111000000₂

33550336₁₀ = 1111111111111000000000000₂.

Thus every even perfect number is a pernicious number.

Note that every even perfect number is also a practical number (c.f. Related concepts).

Odd perfect numbers

Unsolved problem in mathematics:

Are there any odd perfect numbers?
(more unsolved problems in mathematics)

It is unknown whether there is any odd perfect number, though various results have been obtained. In 1496, Jacques Lefèvre stated that Euclid's rule gives all perfect numbers,^[18] thus implying that no odd perfect number exists. More recently, Carl Pomerance has presented a heuristic argument suggesting that indeed no odd perfect number should exist.^[19] All perfect numbers are also Ore's harmonic numbers, and it has been conjectured as well that there are no odd Ore's harmonic numbers other than 1.

Any odd perfect number N must satisfy the following conditions:

N > 10¹⁵⁰⁰.^[20]
N is not divisible by 105.^[21]
N is of the form N ≡ 1 (mod 12), N ≡ 117 (mod 468), or N ≡ 81 (mod 324).^[22]
N is of the form

N=q^{\alpha }p_{1}^{2e_{1}}\cdots p_{k}^{2e_{k}},

where:

q, p₁, ..., p_k are distinct primes (Euler).
q ≡ α ≡ 1 (mod 4) (Euler).
The smallest prime factor of N is less than (2k + 8) / 3.^[23]
Either q^α > 10⁶², or p_j^2e_j > 10⁶² for some j.^[20]
N < 2^{4^k+1}.^[24]

The largest prime factor of N is greater than 10⁸.^[25]
The second largest prime factor is greater than 10⁴, and the third largest prime factor is greater than 100.^[26]^[27]
N has at least 101 prime factors and at least 10 distinct prime factors.^[20]^[28] If 3 is not one of the factors of N, then N has at least 12 distinct prime factors.^[29]

In 1888, Sylvester stated:^[30]

...a prolonged meditation on the subject has satisfied me that the existence of any one such [odd perfect number] — its escape, so to say, from the complex web of conditions which hem it in on all sides — would be little short of a miracle.

Euler stated: "Whether (...) there are any odd perfect numbers is a most difficult question".^[31]

Minor results

All even perfect numbers have a very precise form; odd perfect numbers either do not exist or are rare. There are a number of results on perfect numbers that are actually quite easy to prove but nevertheless superficially impressive; some of them also come under Richard Guy's strong law of small numbers:

The only even perfect number of the form x³ + 1 is 28 (Makowski 1962).^[32]
28 is also the only even perfect number that is a sum of two positive integral cubes (Gallardo 2010).^[33]
The reciprocals of the divisors of a perfect number N must add up to 2 (to get this, take the definition of a perfect number, $\sigma _{1}(n)=2n$ , and divide both sides by n):
- For 6, we have $1/6+1/3+1/2+1/1=2$ ;
- For 28, we have $1/28+1/14+1/7+1/4+1/2+1/1=2$ , etc.
The number of divisors of a perfect number (whether even or odd) must be even, because N cannot be a perfect square.^[34]
- From these two results it follows that every perfect number is an Ore's harmonic number.
The even perfect numbers are not trapezoidal numbers; that is, they cannot be represented as the difference of two positive non-consecutive triangular numbers. There are only three types of non-trapezoidal numbers: even perfect numbers, powers of two, and the numbers of the form $2^{n-1}(2^{n}+1)$ formed as the product of a Fermat prime $2^{n}+1$ with a power of two in a similar way to the construction of even perfect numbers from Mersenne primes.^[35]
The number of perfect numbers less than n is less than $c{\sqrt {n}}$ , where c > 0 is a constant.^[36] In fact it is $o({\sqrt {n}})$ , using little-o notation.^[37]
Every even perfect number ends in 6 or 28, base ten; and, with the only exception of 6, ends in 1, base 9.^[38]^[39] Therefore in particular the digital root of every even perfect number other than 6 is 1.
The only square-free perfect number is 6.^[40]

Related concepts

The sum of proper divisors gives various other kinds of numbers. Numbers where the sum is less than the number itself are called deficient, and where it is greater than the number, abundant. These terms, together with perfect itself, come from Greek numerology. A pair of numbers which are the sum of each other's proper divisors are called amicable, and larger cycles of numbers are called sociable. A positive integer such that every smaller positive integer is a sum of distinct divisors of it is a practical number.

By definition, a perfect number is a fixed point of the restricted divisor function s(n) = σ(n) − n, and the aliquot sequence associated with a perfect number is a constant sequence. All perfect numbers are also ${\mathcal {S}}$ -perfect numbers, or Granville numbers.

A semiperfect number is a natural number that is equal to the sum of all or some of its proper divisors. A semiperfect number that is equal to the sum of all its proper divisors is a perfect number. Most abundant numbers are also semiperfect; abundant numbers which are not semiperfect are called weird numbers.

Notes

↑ Caldwell, Chris, "A proof that all even perfect numbers are a power of two times a Mersenne prime".
↑ Dickson, L. E. (1919). History of the Theory of Numbers, Vol. I. Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington. p. 4.
↑ Commentary on the Gospel of John 28.1.1-4, with further references in the Sources Chrétiennes edition: vol. 385, 58-61.
↑ http://torreys.org/sblpapers2015/S22-05_philonic_arithmological_exegesis.pdf
↑ Roshdi Rashed, The Development of Arabic Mathematics: Between Arithmetic and Algebra (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994), pp. 328–329.
↑ Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm 14908
↑ Smith, DE (1958). The History of Mathematics: Volume II. New York: Dover. p. 21. ISBN 0-486-20430-8.
↑ Dickson, L. E. (1919). History of the Theory of Numbers, Vol. I. Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington. p. 10.
↑ Pickover, C (2001). Wonders of Numbers: Adventures in Mathematics, Mind, and Meaning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 360. ISBN 0-19-515799-0.
↑ Peterson, I (2002). Mathematical Treks: From Surreal Numbers to Magic Circles. Washington: Mathematical Association of America. p. 132. ISBN 88-8358-537-2.
↑ All factors of 2^p − 1 are congruent to 1 mod 2p. For example, 2¹¹ − 1 = 2047 = 23 × 89, and both 23 and 89 yield a remainder of 1 when divided by 11. Furthermore, whenever p is a Sophie Germain prime—that is, 2p + 1 is also prime—and 2p + 1 is congruent to 1 or 7 mod 8, then 2p + 1 will be a factor of 2^p − 1, which is the case for p = 11, 23, 83, 131, 179, 191, 239, 251, ... A002515.
↑ Song Y. Yan (2009). Primality Testing and Integer Factorization in Public-Key Cryptography. Advances in Information Security. 11 (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag. p. 199. ISBN 0-387-77268-5.
↑ http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/Perfect_numbers.html
↑ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews .
↑ "GIMPS Home". Mersenne.org. Retrieved 2013-02-05.
↑ GIMPS Milestones Report. Retrieved 2014-02-24
↑ Weisstein, Eric W. "Perfect Number". MathWorld.
↑ Dickson, L. E. (1919). History of the Theory of Numbers, Vol. I. Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington. p. 6.
↑ Oddperfect.org.
1 2 3 Ochem, Pascal; Rao, Michaël (2012). "Odd perfect numbers are greater than 10¹⁵⁰⁰" (PDF). Mathematics of Computation. 81 (279): 1869–1877. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-2012-02563-4. ISSN 0025-5718. Zbl pre06051364.
↑ Kühnel, U (1949). "Verschärfung der notwendigen Bedingungen für die Existenz von ungeraden vollkommenen Zahlen". Mathematische Zeitschrift. 52: 201–211. doi:10.1515/crll.1941.183.98. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
↑ Roberts, T (2008). "On the Form of an Odd Perfect Number" (PDF). Australian Mathematical Gazette. 35 (4): 244.
↑ Grün, O (1952). "Über ungerade vollkommene Zahlen". Mathematische Zeitschrift. 55 (3): 353–354. doi:10.1007/BF01181133. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
↑ Nielsen, PP (2003). "An upper bound for odd perfect numbers". Integers. 3: A14–A22. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
↑ Goto, T; Ohno, Y (2008). "Odd perfect numbers have a prime factor exceeding 10⁸" (PDF). Mathematics of Computation. 77 (263): 1859–1868. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-08-02050-9. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
↑ Iannucci, DE (1999). "The second largest prime divisor of an odd perfect number exceeds ten thousand" (PDF). Mathematics of Computation. 68 (228): 1749–1760. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-99-01126-6. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
↑ Iannucci, DE (2000). "The third largest prime divisor of an odd perfect number exceeds one hundred" (PDF). Mathematics of Computation. 69 (230): 867–879. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-99-01127-8. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
↑ Nielsen, PP (2015). "Odd perfect numbers, Diophantine equations, and upper bounds" (PDF). Mathematics of Computation. 84 (0): 2549–2567. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-2015-02941-X. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
↑ Nielsen, PP (2007). "Odd perfect numbers have at least nine distinct prime factors" (PDF). Mathematics of Computation. 76 (260): 2109–2126. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-07-01990-4. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
↑ The Collected Mathematical Papers of James Joseph Sylvester p. 590, tr. from "Sur les nombres dits de Hamilton", Compte Rendu de l'Association Française (Toulouse, 1887), pp. 164–168.
↑ http://www.math.harvard.edu/~knill/seminars/perfect/handout.pdf
↑ Makowski, A. (1962). "Remark on perfect numbers". Elem. Math. 17 (5): 109.
↑ Gallardo, Luis H. (2010). "On a remark of Makowski about perfect numbers". Elem. Math. 65: 121–126. .
↑ Yan, Song Y. (2012), Computational Number Theory and Modern Cryptography, John Wiley & Sons, Section 2.3, Exercise 2(6), ISBN 9781118188613 .
↑ Jones, Chris; Lord, Nick (1999). "Characterising non-trapezoidal numbers". The Mathematical Gazette. The Mathematical Association. 83 (497): 262–263. doi:10.2307/3619053. JSTOR 3619053
↑ Hornfeck, B (1955). "Zur Dichte der Menge der vollkommenen zahlen". Arch. Math. 6 (6): 442–443. doi:10.1007/BF01901120.
↑ Kanold, HJ (1956). "Eine Bemerkung ¨uber die Menge der vollkommenen zahlen". Math. Ann. 131 (4): 390–392. doi:10.1007/BF01350108.
↑ H. Novarese. Note sur les nombres parfaits Texeira J. VIII (1886), 11–16.
↑ Dickson, L. E. (1919). History of the Theory of Numbers, Vol. I. Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington. p. 25.
↑ Redmond, Don (1996). Number Theory: An Introduction to Pure and Applied Mathematics. Chapman & Hall/CRC Pure and Applied Mathematics. 201. CRC Press. Problem 7.4.11, p. 428. ISBN 9780824796969. .

References

Euclid, Elements, Book IX, Proposition 36. See D.E. Joyce's website for a translation and discussion of this proposition and its proof.
Kanold, H.-J. (1941). "Untersuchungen über ungerade vollkommene Zahlen". Journal für die Reine und Angewandte Mathematik. 183: 98–109.
Steuerwald, R. "Verschärfung einer notwendigen Bedingung für die Existenz einer ungeraden vollkommenen Zahl". S.-B. Bayer. Akad. Wiss. 1937: 69–72.

External links

Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Perfect number", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
David Moews: Perfect, amicable and sociable numbers
Perfect numbers – History and Theory
Weisstein, Eric W. "Perfect Number". MathWorld.

"Sloane's A000396 : Perfect numbers". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.
OddPerfect.org A projected distributed computing project to search for odd perfect numbers.
Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search
Perfect Numbers, math forum at Drexel.
Grimes, James. "8128: Perfect Numbers". Numberphile. Brady Haran.

Divisibility-based sets of integers

Overview	Integer factorization Divisor Unitary divisor Divisor function Prime factor Fundamental theorem of arithmetic Arithmetic number

Factorization forms	Prime Composite Semiprime Pronic Sphenic Square-free Powerful Perfect power Achilles Smooth Regular Rough Unusual

Constrained divisor sums	Perfect Almost perfect Quasiperfect Multiply perfect Hemiperfect Hyperperfect Superperfect Unitary perfect Semiperfect Practical Erdős–Nicolas

With many divisors	Abundant Primitive abundant Highly abundant Superabundant Colossally abundant Highly composite Superior highly composite Weird

Aliquot sequence-related	Untouchable Amicable Sociable Betrothed

Other sets	Deficient Friendly Solitary Sublime Harmonic divisor Frugal Equidigital Extravagant

Classes of natural numbers

Powers and
related numbers

Of the form
a × 2^b ± 1

Other polynomial
numbers

Recursively defined
numbers

Possessing a
specific set
of other numbers

Expressible via
specific sums

Generated
via a sieve

Lucky

Code related

Meertens

Figurate numbers

2-dimensional

centered	Centered triangular Centered square Centered pentagonal Centered hexagonal Centered heptagonal Centered octagonal Centered nonagonal Centered decagonal Star

non-centered	Triangular Square Square triangular Pentagonal Hexagonal Heptagonal Octagonal Nonagonal Decagonal Dodecagonal

3-dimensional

centered	Centered tetrahedral Centered cube Centered octahedral Centered dodecahedral Centered icosahedral

non-centered	Tetrahedral Octahedral Dodecahedral Icosahedral Stella octangula

pyramidal	Square pyramidal Pentagonal pyramidal Hexagonal pyramidal Heptagonal pyramidal

4-dimensional

centered	Centered pentachoric Squared triangular

non-centered	Pentatope

Pseudoprimes

Combinatorial
numbers

Arithmetic functions

By properties of σ(n)	Abundant Almost perfect Arithmetic Colossally abundant Descartes Hemiperfect Highly abundant Highly composite Hyperperfect Multiply perfect Perfect Practical number Primitive abundant Quasiperfect Refactorable Sublime Superabundant Superior highly composite Superperfect

By properties of Ω(n)	Almost prime Semiprime

By properties of φ(n)	Highly cototient Highly totient Noncototient Nontotient Perfect totient Sparsely totient

By properties of s(n)	Amicable Betrothed Deficient Semiperfect

Dividing a quotient

Other prime factor
or divisor related
numbers

Recreational
mathematics

Base-dependent
numbers

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