Old Church Slavonic grammar
Old Church Slavonic is an inflectional language with moderately complex verbal and nominal systems.
Nouns
o-stems
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Nouns belonging to this declension class are generally masculines ending in -ъ in the nominative singular (bogъ, gradъ, rodъ). The only exception are the nouns in -ъ that inflect as u-stem masculines. Sometimes (but not yet obligatorily, in contrast to later Slavic languages), in the accusative singular, the beginnings of a difference between an animate and inanimate subgender can be seen, as the genitive may occasionally be used instead of the accusative for animate objects (raba beside rabъ).
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Nouns belonging to this declension class are neuters ending in -o in the nominative singular (selo, lěto, město). The only exception are the few neuters that are inflected as s-stems. |
jo-stems
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Nouns belonging to this declension class are masculines ending in -ь preceded by a palatal in the nominative singular (vračь, kralь, košь). This paradigm encompasses nouns such as krai that don't appear to be ending in a palatal, but are in fact underlyingly combinations like krajь and so undergo this declension (kraj -ь, kraj -a). Nouns ending in agentive suffixes -tel-ь and -ar-ь also belong to this class (učitelь, učitelja, učitelju..., mytarь, mytarja, mytarju...). |
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The jo-stem declension class encompasses neuters ending in -e (lože, polje, molenьe). |
a-stems
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Nouns belonging to this declension class are feminines ending in -a preceded by a hard, non-palatal consonant (žena). Also belonging to this paradigm are the rare masculines ending in -a (sluga, vojevoda). |
ja-stems
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Noun belonging to this declension class are feminines ending in -a preceded by a soft, palatal consonant (straža, svešta, mrěža). This paradigm also encompasses feminines ending in -i (rabyni, bogyni), -ica (děvica) and -ьni- (rizьnica), and also masculines ending in -a preceded by a palatal (junoša). |
i-stems
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Nouns belonging to this declension class are masculines ending in -ь preceded by a hard, non-palatal consonant (črьvь, gospodь, pǫtь). The only exception are a limited number of such nouns belonging to the n-stem paradigm. |
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Nouns belonging to the i-stem feminine declension are feminines ending in -ь in the nominative singular (rěčь, noštь, tvarь). The only exception is the noun krъvь which undergoes ъv-stem (ū-stem) declension. |
u-stems
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Nouns belonging to this declension are a rather small group of masculines: činъ, domъ, ledъ, medъ, mirъ, polъ, sanъ, synъ, volъ, vrъxъ. |
ū-stems
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Nouns belonging to the ū-stem declension (also known as -ъv- declension, or v-stem declension) are: buky, brady, cěly, crьky, horǫgy, loky, ljuby, neplody, prěljuby, smoky, svekry, žrьny, kry (this last form is attested in Psalterium Sinaiticum; older sources list the accusative form krъvь as a lemma). |
n-stems
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Nouns belonging to this declension class are the following masculines: dьnь, jelenь, jęčьmenь, kamy, korenь, plamy, remenь, sęženь, stepenь. |
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Nouns belonging to this declension class are the following neuters: brěmę, čismę, imę, pismę, plemę, sěmę, slěmę, těmę, vrěmę. |
s-stems
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Nouns belonging to this declension class are the following neuters: čudo, divo, drěvo, kolo, nebo, tělo, slovo and also uxo and oko which have dual forms like i-stems. |
t-stems
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The t-stem (also known as nt-stem) paradigm encompasses neuters denoting a young of an animal or human: otročę, agnę, kozьlę, kljusę, osьlę, ovьčę, telę, žrěbę etc. |
r-stems
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r-stem feminines are the nouns mati and dъšti. |
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
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Just as the first and second person pronouns, the third person pronoun is commonly used only in oblique cases. Nominative singular forms are not attested in the OCS corpus, and are reconstructed. In the East South Slavic dialectal area where OCS originated, a suppletive nominative singular stem of the demonstrative tъ ('that') is used, elsewhere onъ ('that one there, yon'), or very rarely sь ('this'). By attaching the enclitic particle že to the forms of *i one obtains the relative pronoun: iže ('he who'), ježe ('the (female) one to whom'), jejuže ('the two of whom'), etc. When following prepositions, these pronouns take a prothetic n-, hence kъ n'imъ ('to them') instead of *imъ, na n'emь ('on him'), etc. This is a remnant of final -m/n in the PIE prepositions *kom (cf. Latin cum, Sanskrit kám),
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The reflexive pronoun has only singular oblique forms, which is the state of affairs inherited from PIE *swé. The reflexive pronoun refers to the subject as a whole, and can be translated as English -self (myself, yourself, himself etc.) |
Relative pronoun
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As mentioned, the third person pronoun *i participates in the formation of the relative pronoun by appending the indeclinable enclitic že. Unlike the third person pronoun, however, the nominative case forms do occur. Similarly, a prothetic n- occurs when following prepositions, e.g., vъ n'ьže ('in which'). | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Interrogative pronoun and adjective
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The interrogative pronoun ('who?, what?') has singular-only forms, with the masculine and feminine forms syncretized. Variant forms of čьto occurring in some of the oblique cases have been listed in parentheses. |
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The interrogative adjective, sometimes also labelled as the interrogative pronoun ('which?, what sort of?'), also has some variant forms listed in parentheses. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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The possessive interrogative adjective, sometimes also labelled as the possessive interrogative pronoun ('whose?'), follows the same declension. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Indefinite pronouns and adjectives
The interrogative pronouns kъto, čьto can also have the indefinite meanings of 'anybody', 'anything' respectively.
The prefix ně- imparts an indefinite meaning to the word to which it is attached: thus kъto ('who?') becomes někъto ('someone'), and čьto ('what?') becomes něčьto ('something'). Similarly, the prefix ni- imparts a negative meaning: nikъto ('no one'), ničьto ('nothing'). A prepositions may come between prefix and base word:
- ně u kogo — with someone
- ni o komьže nerodiši — you care for no one
Adjectives
OCS adjectives can be in two forms: short and long, corresponding to indefinite and definite meaning respectively. The long form is generally used only attributively, whereas the short form is predicative in nature. So, e.g., člověkъ dobrъ "a good man, man is good" whilst člověkъ dobryi "the good man, the man who is good".
Indefinite adjectives are inflected as the corresponding nouns of the primary declension, e.g., novъ as rabъ, nova as žena, novo as selo, ništь as vračь, ništa as duša, nište as polje.
Definite adjectives (also known as compound, long, or pronominal forms of adjective) are formed by suffixing to the indefinite form the anaphoric third-person pronoun jь (spelled as i in OCS orthography), ja, je as shown in the table.
| N | novъ + i (jь) = novъjь > novyi | nova + ja = novaja |
| G | nova + jego = novajego | novy + jeję = novyję |
| D | novu + jemu = novujemu | nově + jei = nověi |
| A | novъ + i (jь) = novъjь > novyi | novǫ + jǫ = novǫjǫ |
| L | nově + jemь = novějemь | nově + jei = nověi |
| I | novomь + imь = novъimь > novyimь | novojǫ + jejǫ = novojǫ, novǫjǫ |
| N, A | nova + ja = novaja | nově + i = nověi |
| G, L | novu + jeju = novuju | novu + jeju = novuju |
| D, I | novoma + ima = novyima | novoma + ima = novyima |
| N | novi + (j)i = novii | novy + ję = novyję |
| G | novъ + ixъ = novyixъ | novъ + ixъ = novyixъ |
| D | novomъ + imъ = novyimъ | novamъ + imъ = novyimъ |
| A | novy + ję = novyję | novy + ję = novyję |
| L | nověxъ + ixъ = novyixъ | novaxъ + ixъ = novyixъ |
| I | novy + imi = novyimi | novami + imi = novyimi |
Adjective gradation
There are three levels of adjective gradation in OCS:
- positive, stating an absolute property of an object;
- comparative, stating a relative property of an object;
- superlative, stating a property of an object in relation to any other object it may be compared to.
Comparative
- Adjectives with falling tone on the root syllable:
- dragъ ("dear") − draž-ii (m), draž-e (n), draž-ьši (f);
- tęžьkъ ("heavy") − tęžii, tęže, tęžьši;
- grǫbъ ("grumpy") − grǫblii, grǫble, grǫblьši.
- Adjectives with rising tone on the root syllable:
- novъ ("new") − nov-ěi, nov-ěje, nov-ěiši;
- starъ ("old") − star-ěi, star-ěje, star-ěiši;
- junъ ("young") − jun-ěi, jun-ěje, jun-ěiši.
Declension of the comparative
| N | dražii | draže | dražьši | juněi | juněje | juněiši | |||||||||||||||||||||
| G | dražьša | dražьša | dražьšę | juněiša | juněiša | juněišę | |||||||||||||||||||||
| D | dražьšu | dražьšu | dražьši | juněišu | juněišu | juněiši | |||||||||||||||||||||
| A | dražьšii | draže | dražьšǫ | juněi | juněje | juněišǫ | |||||||||||||||||||||
| L | dražьši | dražьši | dražьši | juněiši | junějiši | juněiši | |||||||||||||||||||||
| I | dražьšemь | dražьšemь | dražьšejǫ | juněišemь | juněišemь | juněišejǫ |
| N, A | dražьša | dražьši | dražьši | juněiša | juněiši | juněiši | |||||||||||||||||||||
| G, L | dražьšu | dražьšu | dražьšu | juněišu | juněišu | juněišu | |||||||||||||||||||||
| D, I | dražьšema | dražьšema | dražьšama | juněišema | juněišema | juněišama |
| N | dražьše | dražьša | dražьšę | juněiše | juněiša | juněišę | |||||||||||||||||||||
| G | dražьšь | dražьšь | dražьšь | juněišь | juněišь | juněišь | |||||||||||||||||||||
| D | dražьšemъ | dražьšemъ | dražьšamъ | juněišemъ | juněišemъ | juněišamъ | |||||||||||||||||||||
| A | dražьšę | dražьša | dražьšę | juněišę | juněiša | juněišę | |||||||||||||||||||||
| L | dražьšixь | dražьšixь | dražьšaxь | juněišixь | juněišixь | juněišaxь | |||||||||||||||||||||
| I | dražьši | dražьši | dražьšami | juněiši | juněiši | juněišami |
Superlative
The superlative is formed:
- by adding the prefix nai- to the comparative base: naidražii, naitęžьši, naigrǫble;
- by combining the comparative form with the pronoun vьsego/vьsěxъ: nověi vьsego, dražii vьsěxъ.
The absolute superlative is formed:
- by adding the prefix prě- to the positive: prědragъ, prěnova, prěstaro;
- by using the adverb Ʒělo with the positive: Ʒělo dragъ, Ʒělo nova, Ʒělo staro.
Numerals
Cardinals
1 jedinъ (m), jedina (f), jedino (n) 2 dъva (m), dъvě (f and n) 3 tri (m), trьje (f and n) 4 četyri (m), četyre (f and n) 5 pętь 6 šestь 7 sedmь 8 osmь 9 devętь 10 desętь 11 jedin-ъ/a/o na desęte 12 dъv-a/ě na desęte 20 dъva desęti 21 dъva desęti i jedin-ъ/a/o 22 dъva desęti i dъv-a/ě 30 trije desęte 40 četyre desęte 50 pętь desętь 60 šestь desętь 70 sedmь desętь 80 osmь desętь 90 devętь desętь 100 sъto 200 dъvě sъtě 300 tri sъta 400 četyre sъta 500 pętь sъtъ 1 000 tysęšti, tysǫšti 2 000 dъvě tysǫšti 5 000 pętь tysǫštь 10 000 desętь tysǫštь or tьma 20 000 dъvadesęti tysǫštь or dъvě tьmě 100 000 sъto tysǫštь or leĝeonъ
Declension of cardinal numbers
1 pronominal declension jedinъ − jedinogo, jedina − jedinoję 2 pronominal declension, only in dual 3 undergoes i-stem declension, plural forms only 4 exactly like trьje, tri, except for the nominative and genitive which undergo consonant-stem declension 5−10 undergoes i-stem declension, only in singular, except for desętь which also has dual and plural forms 11−19 only the first component is inflected, e.g., jedinomu na desęte 20, 30, 40 both components are inflected, e.g., dъvěma desętьma, trьmь desętьmь 50−90 only the first component is inflected, e.g., pętijǫ desętь - sъto is declined as selo, tysęšti as bogyni, tьma as žena, leĝeonъ as rabъ
Ordinals
1 prъvyi, prъvaja, prъvoje 2 vъtoryi, vъtoraja, vъtoroje 3 tretii, tretijaja, tretijeje 4 četvrъyi, četvrъaja, četvrъoje 5 pętyi, pętaja, pętoje 11 prъvyi / prъvaja / prъvoje na desęte 20 dъvadesętьn-yi/aja/oje 21 dъvadesętьn-yi/aja/oje prъv-yi/aja/oje 60 šestьdesętьn-yi/aja/oje 100 sъtъn-yi/aja/oje 1 000 tysǫčьn-yi/aja/oje
All ordinals are inflected like the corresponding adjectives.
Verbs
Present
The present tense is formed by adding present-tense endings onto the present tense stem, which itself is sometimes hidden due to sound changes that have occurred in the past (more common verbs are listed):
- bosti (bod-), vesti (ved- or vez-), krasti (krad-), iti (id-)
- plesti (plet-), mesti (met-), greti (greb-), krasti (krad-)
- rešti (rek-), pešti (pek-), mošti (mog-), tešti (tek-)
There are several classes of verbs:
1. e-type verbs add the interfix -e- to the present stem (except in front of -ǫ) and the endings:
| Verb | Singular | Plural | Dual |
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| bosti (bod-) ("be (future)") |
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| rešti (rek-) ("speak") |
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2. i-type verbs exhibit the same set of endings, but this time the interfix is -i- (except in front of -ǫ and -ę). In the first person singular one finds the processes of iotation (k/c + j > č, g/z + j > ž, x/s + j > š, l + j > lj, n + j > nj, t + j > št, d + j > žd) and epenthesis (bj > blj, pj > plj, mj > mlj, vj > vlj):
| Verb | Singular | Plural | Dual |
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| xvaliti (xval-) ("praise") |
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| ljubiti (ljub-) ("love") |
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3. The athematic verbs byti, dati, věděti, iměti and jasti form the present tense irregularly:
| Verb | Singular | Plural | Dual |
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| byti ("be") |
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| věděti ("know") |
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| iměti ("have") |
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| jasti ("eat") |
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One should distinguish the verbs iměti (imamь, imaši, imatъ), imati (jemljǫ, jemleši, jemletъ) and jęti (imǫ, imeši, imetъ). Exceptional is also the verb xotěti which exhibits iotation even though it's not an i-type verb (xoštǫ, xošteši, xoštetъ).
Asigmatic aorist
The asigmatic aorist (also called root or simple aorist) was named after the loss of the phoneme /s/ in the inflection (AGr. sigma), i.e. there is no VsV > VxV change (intervocalic /s/ yielding /x/). Over time, the asigmatic aorist became increasingly marked as an archaic language feature and was eventually replaced by the other two aorist formations.
The asigmatic aorist was formed by adding to the infinitive stem of e-type verbs with stem ending in a consonant (i.e. verbs with the infix -nǫ-, which is dropped before the aorist endings, and verbs with the null infix) the following endings: -ъ, -e, -e; -omъ, -ete, -ǫ; -ově, -eta, -ete.
| Verb | Singular | Plural | Dual |
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| pasti (pad-) ("fall") | 1. pad -ъ 2. pad -e |
1. pad -omъ 2. pad -ete |
1. pad -ově 2. pad -eta |
| tešti (tek-) ("flow") | 1. tek -ъ 2. teč -e |
1. tek -omъ 2. teč -ete |
1. tek -ově 2. teč -eta |
| mošti (mog-) ("be able to") | 1. mog -ъ 2. mož -e |
1. mog -omъ 2. mož -ete |
1. mog -ově 2. mož -eta |
| dvignǫti (dvig-) ("move") | 1. dvig -ъ 2. dviž -e |
1. dvig -omъ 2. dviž -ete |
1. dvig -ově 2. dviž -eta |
Sigmatic aorist
The sigmatic or s-aorist was formed in the following ways:
- Verbs whose stem ends in b, p, d, t, z, s form this aorist by dropping the final consonant and adding the interfix -s- plus the endings -ъ, -, -; -omъ, -te, -ę; -ově, -ta, -te. Intervocalic sigma (s) exhibits no change. As a side effect, e is lengthened to ě, and o to a.
- Verbs whose stem ends in r or k form this aorist in the same way as previously mentioned, except that intervocalic sigma (s) changes into x, the same set of endings being suffixed to the interfix. As a side effect, e is lengthened to ě, and o to a.
- Verbs whose stem ends in a vowel form this aorist by suffixing exactly the same set of endings to the infinitive stem, and intervocalic -s- changes into -x-.
- The 2nd and 3rd person singular forms of these verbs match the infinitive stem due to the elision of word-final sigma.
| Verb | Singular | Plural | Dual |
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| xvaliti (xvali-) | 1. xvali -x -ъ 2. xvali |
1. xvali -x -omъ 2. xvali -s -te |
1. xvali -x -ově 2. xvali -s -ta |
| tešti (tek-) | 1. těxъ (tek -s -ъ) 2. teče |
1. těxomъ (tek -s -omъ) 2. těste |
1. těxově (tek -s -ově) 2. těsta |
| greti (greb-) | 1. grěsъ 2. grebe |
1. grěsomъ 2. grěste |
1. grěsově 2. grěsta |
| bosti (bod-) | 1. basъ 2. bode |
1. basomъ 2. baste |
1. basově 2. basta |
New aorist
The new aorist (also known as ox-aorist) is formed by suffixing to the infinitive stem of e-type verbs ending in a consonant (verbs with the interfix -nǫ- and verbs with the null interfix) the interfix -os- (-ox) and onto it the endings -ъ, -, -; -omъ, -te, -ę; -ově, -ta, -te. Intervocalic sigma s changes into x.
The 2nd and the 3rd person singular forms are not attested and thus the asigmatic aorist forms are taken as a replacement.
| Verb | Singular | Plural | Dual |
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| krasti (krad-) ("steal") | 1. krad -ox -ъ 2. (krad -e) |
1. krad -ox -omъ 2. krad -os -te |
1. krad -ox -ově 2. krad -os -ta |
| rešti (rek-) | 1. rek -ox -ъ 2. (reč -e) |
1. rek -ox -omъ 2. rek -os -te |
1. rek -ox -ově 2. rek -os -ta |
| iti (id-) ("go/walk") | 1. id -ox -ъ 2. (id -e) |
1. id -ox -omъ 2. id -os -te |
1. id -ox -ově 2. id -os -ta |
Imperfect
There are two ways of forming the imperfect:
1. If the infinitive stems ends in -a or -ě, the interfix -ax- is appended (which changes to -aš- according to the first palatalization in front of e) and onto it, the endings of the asigmatic aorist: -ъ, -e, -e; -omъ, -ete, -ǫ; -ově, -eta, -ete.
| Verb | Singular | Plural | Dual |
|---|---|---|---|
| glagolati (glagola-) ("speak") | 1. glagola -ax -ъ 2. glagola -aš -e |
1. glagola -ax -omъ 2. glagola -aš -ete |
1. glagola -ax -ově 2. glagola -aš -eta |
| viděti (vidě-) ("see") | 1. vidě -ax -ъ 2. vidě -aš -e |
1. vidě -ax -omъ 2. vidě -aš -ete |
1. vidě -ax -ově 2. vidě -aš -eta |
2. The other way of forming the imperfect, applying to all other verbal stems, is by adding onto the present stem the interfix -ěax- (which, in accordance with the first palatalization, is changed to -ěaš- in front of e) and onto it the endings of asigmatic aorist: -ъ, -e, -e; -omъ, -ete, -ǫ; -ově, -eta, -ete.
| Verb | Singular | Plural | Dual |
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| zъvati (zov-) ("call") | 1. zov -ě -ax -ъ 2. zov -ě -aš -e |
1. zov -ě -ax -omъ 2. zov -ě -aš -ete |
1. zov -ě -ax -ově 2. zov -ě -aš -eta |
| bosti (bod-) | 1. bod -ě -ax -ъ 2. bod -ě -aš -e |
1. bod -ě -ax -omъ 2. bod -ě -aš -ete |
1. bod -ě -ax -ově 2. bod -ě -aš -eta |
Both of these imperfect formations often occur side by side in verbs with stem alternation:
- bьrati (bьra-; ber-) > bьraaxъ or berěaxъ
- gъnati (gъna-; žen-) > gъnaaxъ or ženěaxъ
- plьvati (plьva-; pljuj-) > plьvaaxъ or pljujěaxъ
- zъvati (zъva-; zov-) > zъvaaxъ or zověaxъ
In the texts of the OCS canon the forms are often contracted, so that ěax becomes ěx and aax becomes ax. An illustrating example is in Chernorizets Hrabar's famous work O pismenex "An Account of Letters":
- Prěžde ubo slověne ne iměxǫ knigъ, nǫ črъtami i rězami čьtěxǫ i gataaxǫ, pogani sǫšte.
Some forms exhibit sound changes, namely palatalization or iotation in front of ě, yat thus turning into a. The same applies if the stem ends in j which is then reduced in front of yat and yat again changes into a:
- xvaliti (xval-) > xval + ě + axъ > xvaljaaxъ
- nositi (nos-) > nos + ě + axъ > nošaaxъ
- pešti (pek-) > pek + ě + axъ > pečaaxъ
- čuti (čuj-) > čuj + ě + axъ > čujaaxъ
That the second form and not the first is the original one (the first being formed by the change of yat to a) is confirmed by the imperfect paradigm of the verb byti:
| Verb | Singular | Plural | Dual |
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| byti | 1. běaxъ 2. běaše |
1. běaxomъ 2. běašete |
1. běaxově 2. běašeta |
Participles
Present active participle
The present active participle is formed by adding the following endings to the present stem:
1. e-type verbs and athematic verbs:
- present stem + -y (masculine and neuter) and -ǫšti (feminine)
- (e.g., greti (greb-) > greby; grebǫšti)
2. e-type verbs whose present stem ends in a palatal:
- present stem + -ę (masculine and neuter) and -ǫšti (feminine)
- (e.g., kupovati (kupuj-) > kupuję, kupujǫšti)
3. i-type verbs:
- present stem + -ę (masculine and neuter) and -ęšti (feminine)
- (e.g., ljubiti (ljub-) > ljubę, ljubęšti)
Present passive participle
The present passive participle is formed by suffixing to the present stem the endings -o/e/i + m + ъ/a/o (masculine, feminine, neuter):
1. e-type verbs and athematic verbs:
- present stem + o + m + ъ/a/o
- (e.g., pešti (pek-) > pekomъ, pekoma, pekomo)
2. e-type verbs whose stem ends in a palatal:
- present stem + e + m + ъ/a/o
- (e.g., želeti (želj-) > željemъ, željema, željemo)
3. i-type verbs:
- present stem + i + m + ъ/a/o
- (e.g., xvaliti (xval-) > xvalimъ, xvalima, xvalimo)
Past active participle
The past active participle is formed by suffixing to the infinitive stem the following endings:
1. e-type verbs and athematic verbs:
- infinitive stem + -ъ (masculine and neuter) or -ъši (feminine)
- (e.g., bosti (bod-) > bodъ, bodъši)
2. i-type verbs exhibit epenthetic v, which eliminates hiatus:
- infinitive stem + -vъ (masculine and neuter) or -vъši (feminine)
- (e.g., xvaliti (xvali-) > xvalivъ, xvalivъši)
The latter i-type verbs have twofold forms of this participle - the mentioned one of older origin, and a newer one which arose due to analogical leveling:
- nositi (nosi-) > nošъ, nošъši (by iotation from + jъ, jъši) or nosivъ, nosivъši
- roditi (rod-) > roždъ, roždъši (by iotation from + jъ, jъši) or rodivъ, rodivъši
3. Verbs with liquid metathesis form this participle from its older stem form:
- mrěti (< *merti) > mьrъ, mьrъši (and not mrěvъ, mrěvъši)
- prostrěti (< *prosterti) > prostьrъ, prostьrъši (and not prostrěvъ, prostrěvъši)
4. Irregular participles:
- iti > šьdъ, šьdъši
- jaxati > javъ, javъši
l-participle
The l-participle (also known as the resultative participle or second past active participle) is formed by adding to the infinitive stem the interfix -l- and the endings ъ/a/o. If the stem ends in -t or -d, this consonant is dropped.
- xvaliti (xvali) > xvalilъ, xvalila, xvalilo
- plesti (plet-) > plelъ, plela, plelo
Past passive participle
The past passive participle is formed by suffixing to the infinitive stem the following endings:
1. Verbs with stem ending in a consonant, -y or -i:
- infinitive stem + en + ъ/a/o
- (e.g., bosti (bod-) > bodenъ, bodena, bodeno)
- (e.g., nositi (nosi-) > nošenъ, nošena, nošeno - by iotation from nosi + enъ > nosjenъ > nošenъ)
- (e.g., umyti with interfix -ъv- > umъvenъ, umъvena, umъveno)
2. Verbs with stem ending in -a or -ě:
- infinitive stem + n + ъ/a/o
- (e.g., glagolati (glagola-) > glagolanъ, glagolana, glagolano)
- (e.g., viděti (vidě-) > vižden, viždena, viždeno - by iotation from viděn, viděna, viděno)
3. Verbs with stem ending in -ę, -u, -i and -ě (obtained by liquid metathesis):
- infinitive stem + t + ъ/a/o
- (e.g., klęti (klę-) > klętъ, klęta, klęto)
- (e.g., obuti (obu-) > obutъ, obuta, obuto)
- (e.g., mrěti (mrě-) > mrětъ, mrěta, mrěto)
- (e.g., viti (vi-) > vitъ, vita, vito)
Of the latter verbs, those with stem ending in -i (viti, biti etc.) can also form the past passive participle like the verbs in the first group: bitъ or bijenъ, vitъ or vijenъ etc.).
Compound tenses
Perfect
The perfect is formed by combining the l-participle with the imperfective present forms of the auxiliary verb byti.
- nosilъ/a/o jesmь, jesi, jestъ
- nosili/y/a jesmъ, jeste, sǫtь
- nosila/ě/ě jesvě, jesta, jeste
Pluperfect
The pluperfect can be formed in multiple ways, by combining the l-participle with the perfect, imperfect or aorist formation of the auxiliary verb byti.
- nosilъ/a/o bylъ/a/o jesmь or běaxъ or běxъ
- nosili/y/a byli/y/a jesmъ or běaxomъ or běxomъ
- nosila/ě/ě byla/ě/ě jesvě or běaxově or běxově
Future
The future tense is usually expressed using the present tense form of the perfective verb. Imperfective verbs form the future tense by combining the auxiliary verb (byti, xotěti, načęti, iměti) and the infinitive.
- bǫdǫ / xoštǫ / načьnǫ / imamь xvaliti
Future perfect
The future perfect is formed by combining the l-participle with the perfective present of the auxiliary verb byti.
- nosilъ/a/o bǫdǫ, bǫdeši, bǫdetъ
- nosili/y/a bǫdemъ, bǫdete, bǫdǫtъ
- nosila/ě/ě bǫdevě, bǫdeta, bǫdete
Conditional
The conditional (or conditional-optative) modal formation is formed by combining the l-participle with special modal forms of the auxiliary verb byti (with unattested dual forms):
- nosilъ/a/o bimь, bi, bi
- nosili/y/a bimъ, biste, bǫ/bišę
An alternative conditional is formed with the perfective aorist forms of byti:
- nosilъ/a/o byxъ, by, by
- nosili/y/a byxomъ, byste, byšę
Adverbs
Primary adverbs
These are original adverbs with difficult to guess etymology and origin.
- abьje (abije) = right away
- jedъva = hardly, barely
- ješte = yet, still
- nyně = now, today
- paky = again, back
- (j)uže = already
Derived adverbs
Pronominal adverbs
Pronominal adverbs are derived by suffixing pronouns (e.g., ov + amo = ovamo, kъ + de = kъde):
- -amo = direction of movement (tamo, kamo, onamo)
- -ako / -ače = way, mode, manner (tako, inako, inače)
- -de = place (sьde, onude, vьsьde)
- -gda = time (tъgda, kъgda, egda)
- -lь / -li / / -lě / -lьma / -lьmi = measure, amount (kolь, kolě, kolьmi)
Nominal adverbs
Nominal adverbs are derived from nominals or turn by conversion to adverbs which are in fact inflective lexemes with adverbial semantics.
Modal adverbs are created with the suffixes -o or -ě (the endings of accusative and locative singular neuter gender respectively), with no difference in meanings between suffixes, although some adverbs have only the forms in -o (veselo), and some in -ě (javě).
Modal adverbs could also be formed deadjectivally by means of the interfix -ьsk- and the ending -y (by origin, the instrumental plural ending; e.g., slověnьsky).
Adverbs could also be formed with the suffix -ь (pravь, različь) and are by origin probably inherited Proto-Slavic accusative forms.
Frequently occurring are the adverbialized a-stem instrumentals such as jednьnojǫ and also adverbially used oblique cases.
Locative adverbs are by origin mostly petrified locative case forms of nouns: gorě, dolě, nizu, and the same can be said for temporal adverbs: zimě, polu dьne.
Prepositions
Primary prepositions
The primary and non-derived prepositions are of PIE and PSl. heritage:
- bez "without" + G
- iz or is "from, out" + G
- izdrǫky < iz rǫky — from the hand
- kъ "to, for, unto" + D
- ..reče že Marθa kъ Iisusu.. — and Martha said unto Jesus
- na "on, to, upon" + A (denoting direction) or L (denoting place)
- zlijašę ognь na zemьjǫ — they poured fire on earth
- nadъ "on, upon, over" + A (denoting direction) or I (denoting place)
- nadъ glavǫ — over the head
- o or ob "over, round, about" + A (denoting direction) or L (denoting place)
- ob noštь vьsǫ — the whole night through
- otъ "from, away" + G
- otъ nebese — from heaven
- po originally "under, below" + D (extension in space), A (extension in space or time) or L (temporal and local)
- po vьsę grady — through all towns
- po tomь že — after that
- po morjǫ xodę — walking over the sea
- podъ "under, beneath" + A (denoting direction) or I (denoting situation, location)
- podъ nogy, podъ nogama — under the feet
- pri "at, at the time" + L
- pri vraƷěxъ — among the heathen
- prědъ "in front of, before" + A (denoting direction) or I (denoting situation)
- prědъ gradomь — in the vicinity of the city
- sъ "for the extent of" + A, "from, off, away" + G, "with" + I (denoting association, not instrument)
- sъ lakъtь — a cubit long
- sъ nebese — down from heaven
- sъ nimь — with him
- u "at, in" + G
- u dvьrьcь — at the doors
- vъ "in" + A (denoting direction) or L (denoting place)
- vъ tъ dьnь — that day
- vъ kupě — together
- vъz or vъs "for, in exchange for" + A
- vъs kǫjǫ — why?
- za "for, after, behind" + A (denoting direction), I (denoting place) or G (in the sense "because")
- ęti za vlasy — to seize by the hair
Secondary prepositions
The secondary prepositions are derived from adverbial expressions: vьslědъ from vь slědъ, prěžde is a comparative form of prědъ etc.
Conjunctions and particles
Conjunctions and particles are not easily separable because they sometimes function as an intensifier, and sometimes as a conjunction.
- a, ali "but" - (proclitic), setting two parts of a statement in opposition
- ako, jako, ěko "that, so that, how, when, as" - (proclitic) introducing indirect or direct speech; highly context-dependent
- ašte "if, whether" - (proclitic) a conditional particle, also used to generalize relative pronouns
- bo "for, because" - (enclitic) denoting caustive relationships (i + bo = ibo, u + bo = ubo)
- da "in order that" - (proclitic) introducing final result
- i "and; even, too" - (proclitic) connecting clauses or used as an adverb within a clause
- ide "for, since" - (proclitic)
- jegda, jegdaže "when, if" - (proclitic)
- jeda "surely not" - (proclitic), introducing a question expecting a negative answer
- li "or", li...li "either... or" - (proclitic or enclitic) generally when forming a question; when enclitic, usually a direct question, when proclitic, taking the meaning "or"
- ne "not", ne...ni "neither... nor" - ne generally occurs before the negated item, occurring usually once in the main clause, but ni may occur several times in the same clause
- nъ "but" - (proclitic) connecting two clauses
- to "then, so" - (proclitic) correlative to ašte
- že "on the other hand, or, and" - (enclitic) the commonest particle functioning both as an intensifier and a conjunction; often bound to pronouns and adverbs (jakože, nikъto že)
Notes
References
- Damjanović, Stjepan (2004), Slovo iskona (in Croatian), Zagreb: Matica hrvatska, ISBN 953-150-567-5
- Hamm, Josip (1974), Staroslavenska gramatika (in Croatian), Zagreb: Školska knjiga
- Damjanović, Stjepan (2003), Staroslavenski jezik (in Croatian), Zagreb: Hrvatska sveučilišna naklada, ISBN 953-169-095-2
- Huntley, David (1993), "Old Church Slavonic", in Bernard Comrie and Greville G. Corbett, The Slavonic languages, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-28078-5
External links
- (Croatian) Gramatika jezika hèrvatskoga: Osnovana na starobugarskoj slověnštini, Vatroslav Jagić, 1864
- (Bulgarian) Старобългарски език — кратък граматичен очерк, Кирил Мирчев, София 1972
- (English) Old Church Slavonic Online, University of Texas at Austin
- (Latin) Abecedarium Palaeoslovenicum in usum glagolitarum, Josip Vajs, Veglae 1909.
- (Russian) Кульбакин С. М. Древнецерковнославянский язык. I. Введение. Фонетика. — Kharkiv, 1911
- (English) Research Guide to Old Church Slavonic