Megaloblastic anemia

Megaloblastic anemia
Peripheral blood smear showing hypersegmented neutrophils, characteristic of megaloblastic anemia.
Classification and external resources
Specialty	Hematology
ICD-10	D51.1, D52.0, D53.1
ICD-9-CM	281
DiseasesDB	29507
MedlinePlus	000567
eMedicine	med/1420 ped/2575
MeSH	D000749

Megaloblastic anemia (or megaloblastic anaemia) is an anemia (of macrocytic classification) that results from inhibition of DNA synthesis during red blood cell production.^[1] When DNA synthesis is impaired, the cell cycle cannot progress from the G2 growth stage to the mitosis (M) stage. This leads to continuing cell growth without division, which presents as macrocytosis. Megaloblastic anemia has a rather slow onset, especially when compared to that of other anemias. The defect in red cell DNA synthesis is most often due to hypovitaminosis, specifically a deficiency of vitamin B₁₂ and/or folic acid. Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency alone will not cause the syndrome in the presence of sufficient folate, as the mechanism is loss of B₁₂ dependent folate recycling, followed by folate-deficiency loss of nucleic acid synthesis (specifically thymine), leading to defects in DNA synthesis. Folic acid supplementation in the absence of vitamin B₁₂ prevents this type of anemia (although other vitamin B₁₂-specific pathologies may be present). Loss of micronutrients may also be a cause. Copper deficiency resulting from an excess of zinc from unusually high oral consumption of zinc-containing denture-fixation creams has been found to be a cause.^[2]

Megaloblastic anemia not due to hypovitaminosis may be caused by antimetabolites that poison DNA production directly, such as some chemotherapeutic or antimicrobial agents (for example azathioprine or trimethoprim).

The pathological state of megaloblastosis is characterized by many large immature and dysfunctional red blood cells (megaloblasts) in the bone marrow^[3] and also by hypersegmented neutrophils (those exhibiting five or more nuclear lobes ("segments"), with up to four lobes being normal). These hypersegmented neutrophils are found in the "peripheral blood" (i.e., a diagnostic smear of a blood-sample taken from the circulation).

Causes

• Vitamin B12 deficiency leading to folate deficiency:
  • Achlorhydria-induced malabsorption
  • Deficient intake
  • Deficient intrinsic factor, a molecule produced by cells in the stomach that is required for B12 absorption (pernicious anemia or gastrectomy)
  • Coeliac disease
  • Biological competition for vitamin B12 by diverticulosis, fistula, intestinal anastomosis, or infection by the marine parasite Diphyllobothrium latum (fish tapeworm)
  • Selective vitamin B12 malabsorption (congenital—juvenile megaloblastic anemia 1—and drug-induced)
  • Chronic pancreatitis
  • Ileal resection and bypass
  • Nitrous oxide anesthesia (usually requires repeated instances).
• Folate deficiency:
  • Alcoholism
  • Deficient intake
  • Increased needs: pregnancy, infant, rapid cellular proliferation, and cirrhosis
  • Malabsorption (congenital and drug-induced)
  • Intestinal and jejunal resection
  • (indirect) Deficient thiamine and factors (e.g., enzymes) responsible for folate metabolism.
• Combined Deficiency: vitamin B12 & folate.
• Inherited Pyrimidine Synthesis Disorders: Orotic aciduria
• Inherited DNA Synthesis Disorders
• Toxins and Drugs:
  • Folic acid antagonists (methotrexate)
  • Purine synthesis antagonists (6-mercaptopurine)
  • Pyrimidine antagonists (cytosine arabinoside)
  • Phenytoin
  • Nitrous Oxide
• Erythroleukemia
• Inborn genetic mutations of the Methionine synthase gene

Hematological findings

The blood film can point towards vitamin deficiency:

• Decreased red blood cell (RBC) count and hemoglobin levels^[4]
• Increased mean corpuscular volume (MCV, >100 fL) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH)
• Normal mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC, 32–36 g/dL)
• The reticulocyte count is decreased due to destruction of fragile and abnormal megaloblastic erythroid precursor.
• The platelet count may be reduced.
• Neutrophil granulocytes may show multisegmented nuclei ("senile neutrophil"). This is thought to be due to decreased production and a compensatory prolonged lifespan for circulating neutrophils, which increase numbers of nuclear segments with age.
• Anisocytosis (increased variation in RBC size) and poikilocytosis (abnormally shaped RBCs).
• Macrocytes (larger than normal RBCs) are present.
• Ovalocytes (oval-shaped RBCs) are present.
• Howell-Jolly bodies (chromosomal remnant) also present.

Blood chemistries will also show:

• An increased lactic acid dehydrogenase (LDH) level. The isozyme is LDH-2 which is typical of the serum and hematopoetic cells.
• Increased homocysteine and methylmalonic acid in Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency
• Increased homocysteine in folate deficiency

Normal levels of both methylmalonic acid and total homocysteine rule out clinically significant cobalamin deficiency with virtual certainty.^[5]

Bone marrow (not normally checked in a patient suspected of megaloblastic anemia) shows megaloblastic hyperplasia.^[6]

Analysis

The gold standard for the diagnosis of Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency is a low blood level of Vitamin B₁₂. A low level of blood Vitamin B₁₂ is a finding that normally can and should be treated by injections, supplementation, or dietary or lifestyle advice, but it is not a diagnosis. Hypovitaminosis B₁₂ can result from a number of mechanisms, including those listed above. For determination of etiology, further patient history, testing, and empirical therapy may be clinically indicated.

A measurement of methylmalonic acid (methylmalonate) can provide an indirect method for partially differentiating Vitamin B₁₂ and folate deficiencies. The level of methylmalonic acid is not elevated in folic acid deficiency. Direct measurement of blood cobalamin remains the gold standard because the test for elevated methylmalonic acid is not specific enough. Vitamin B₁₂ is one necessary prosthetic group to the enzyme methylmalonyl-coenzyme A mutase. Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency is but one among the conditions that can lead to dysfunction of this enzyme and a buildup of its substrate, methylmalonic acid, the elevated level of which can be detected in the urine and blood.

Due to the lack of available radioactive Vitamin B₁₂, the Schilling test is now largely a historical artifact. The Schilling test was performed in the past to help determine the nature of the vitamin B₁₂ deficiency. An advantage of the Schilling test was that it often included Vitamin B₁₂ with intrinsic factor.

See also

• List of circulatory system conditions
• List of hematologic conditions

External links

• GeneReview/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Thiamine-Responsive Megaloblastic Anemia Syndrome
• Rare Anemias Foundation

References