List of animals displaying homosexual behavior
Further information: Homosexual behavior in animals
Roy and Silo, two Central Park Zoo male chinstrap penguins similar to those pictured, became internationally known when they successfully hatched and cared for an egg they were given.[1]
Couple of two male mallard ducks in a nature reserve in Germany
For these animals, there is documented evidence of homosexual behavior of one or more of the following kinds: sex, courtship, affection, pair bonding, or parenting, as noted in researcher and author Bruce Bagemihl's 1999 book Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity.
Bagemihl writes that the presence of same-sex sexual behavior was not "officially" observed on a large scale until the 1990s due to possible observer bias caused by social attitudes towards LGBT people, making the homosexual theme taboo.[2][3] Bagemihl devotes three chapters; Two Hundred Years at Looking at Homosexual Wildlife, Explaining (Away) Animal Homosexuality and Not For Breeding Only in his 1999 book Biological Exuberance to the "documentation of systematic prejudices" where he notes "the present ignorance of biology lies precisely in its single-minded attempt to find reproductive (or other) 'explanations' for homosexuality, transgender, and non-procreative and alternative heterosexualities."[4] Petter Bøckman, academic adviser for the Against Nature? exhibit stated "[M]any researchers have described homosexuality as something altogether different from sex. They must realise that animals can have sex with who they will, when they will and without consideration to a researcher's ethical principles." Homosexual behavior is found amongst social birds and mammals, particularly the sea mammals and the primates.[3]
Animal sexual behavior takes many different forms, even within the same species and the motivations for and implications of their behaviors have yet to be fully understood. Bagemihl's research shows that homosexual behavior, not necessarily sex, has been documented in about 500 species as of 1999, ranging from primates to gut worms.[2][5] Homosexuality in animals is seen as controversial by social conservatives because it asserts the naturalness of homosexuality in humans, while others counter that it has no implications and is nonsensical to equate natural animal behaviors to morality.[6][7] Animal preference and motivation is always inferred from behavior. Thus homosexual behavior has been given a number of terms over the years. The correct usage of the term homosexual is that an animal exhibits homosexual behavior, however this article conforms to the usage by modern research,[8][9][10][11] applying the term homosexuality to all sexual behavior (copulation, genital stimulation, mating games and sexual display behavior) between animals of the same sex.
This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.
Mammals
Main article: List of mammals displaying homosexual behavior
- Selected mammals from the full list:
- Bison[12]
- Brown bear[13]
- Brown rat[14]
- Cavy[14]
- Caribou[15]
- Cat (domestic)[16]
- Cattle (domestic)[17]
- Chimpanzee[18][19][20][21]
- Common dolphin[22]
- Common marmoset[23]
- Dog[24]
- Elephant[25]
- Fox[26]
- Giraffe[3][27][28]
- Goat[12]
- Horse (domestic)[29]
- Human[30][31][32]
- Koala[33]
- Lion[30]
- Orca[22]
- Panda
- Raccoon[34]
Birds
Main article: List of birds displaying homosexual behavior
- Selected birds from the full list:
Fish
Arctic grayling (Thymallus arcticus) leaping for a fly fisherman's bait. Research going back to the 1950s has shown both male and female graylings exhibit homosexual behavior.[45]
- Amazon molly[46]
- Blackstripe topminnow[47]
- Bluegill sunfish[47]
- Char[45]
- Grayling[45]
- European bitterling[48]
- Green swordtail[48]
- Guiana leaffish[49]
- Houting whitefish[45]
- Jewel fish[50]
- Least darter (Microperca punctulata)[48]
- Mouthbreeding fish sp.[47]
- Salmon spp.[51]
- Southern platyfish[48]
- Ten-spined stickleback[48]
- Three-spined stickleback[48]
Reptiles
Three species of Cnemidophorus.
The all-female Whiptail lizard species Cnemidophorus neomexicanus (center), which reproduces via parthenogenesis, is shown flanked by two sexual species having males, C. inornatus (left) and C. tigris (right). Research has shown that simulated mating behavior increases fertility for Cnemidophorus neomexicanus. One female lies on top of another, playing the role of the male, the lizard that was on bottom has larger eggs. The lizards switch off this role each mating season.[52]
- Anole sp.[53]
- Bearded dragon[54]
- Blue-tailed day gecko (Phelsuma cepediana)[55]
- Broad-headed skink[48]
- Checkered whiptail lizard[54]
- Chihuahuan spotted whiptail lizard[54]
- Common ameiva[54]
- Common garter snake[48]
- Cuban green anole[53]
- Desert grassland whiptail lizard[54]
- Desert tortoise[56]
- Fence lizard[54]
- Five-lined skink[48]
- Gold dust day gecko (Phelsuma laticauda)[55]
- Gopher (pine) snake[47]
- Green anole[53]
- Inagua curlytail lizard[54]
- Jamaican giant anole[53]
- Laredo striped whiptail lizard[54]
- Largehead anole[53]
- Mourning gecko[57]
- Plateau striped whiptail lizard[54]
- Red diamond rattlesnake[48]
- Red-tailed skink[48]
- Side-blotched lizard[54]
- Speckled rattlesnake[48]
- Water moccasin[48]
- Western rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis)[48]
- Western banded gecko[57]
- Whiptail lizard spp.[54]
- Wood turtle[53]
Amphibians
- Appalachian woodland salamander[58]
- Black-spotted frog[59]
- Mountain dusky salamander[58]
- Tengger desert toad[53]
Insects
The head of a darner dragonfly (Basiaeschna janata).
Male homosexuality has been inferred in several species of dragonflies. A survey of damsel and dragonflies reveals characteristic cloacal pincher mating damage in 20–80 percent of the males, indicating a fairly high occurrence of sexual coupling between males.[60][61]
Male flour beetles are believed by scientists to engage in same-sex coupling to practice mating and to rid themselves of "old, less effective" sperm.[62]
- Alfalfa weevil[63]
- Australian parasitic wasp sp.[63]
- Bean weevil sp.[63]
- Bedbug and other bug spp.[64][65]
- Blister beetle spp.[66]
- Blowfly[66]
- Broadwinged damselfly sp.[67]
- Cabbage (small) white (butterfly)[68]
- Checkerspot butterfly[68]
- Club-tailed dragonfly spp.[69]
- Cockroach spp.[70]
- Common skimmer dragonfly spp.[69]
- Creeping water bug sp.[71]
- Cutworm[72]
- Digger bee[73]
- Dragonfly spp.[69]
- Eastern giant ichneumon wasp[63]
- Eucalyptus longhorned borer[71]
- Field cricket sp.[74]
- Flour beetle[62]
- Fruit fly spp.[75]
- Glasswing butterfly[68]
- Hypoponera opacior ant[76]
- Grape berry moth[77]
- Grape borer[71]
- Green lacewing[78]
- Hen flea[78]
- House fly[79]
- Ichneumon wasp sp.[63]
- Japanese scarab beetle[80]
- Larch bud moth[77]
- Large milkweed bug[65]
- Large white[65]
- Long-legged fly spp.[81]
- Mazarine blue[65]
- Mexican white (butterfly)[65]
- Midge sp.[81]
- Migratory locust[82]
- Monarch butterfly[68]
- Narrow-winged damselfly spp.[67]
- Parsnip leaf miner[81]
- Pomace fly[81]
- Queen butterfly[68]
- Red ant sp.[81]
- Red flour beetle[65]
- Reindeer warble fly (Hypoderma tarandi)[81]
- Rose chafer(Macrodactylus subspinosus)[81]
- Rove beetle spp.[65]
- Scarab beetle (melolonthine)[83]
- Screwworm fly[81]
- Silkworm moth[77]
- Southeastern blueberry bee[73]
- Southern green stink bug[65]
- Southern masked chafer[81]
- Southern one-year canegrub[81]
- Spreadwinged damselfly spp.[67]
- Spruce budworm moth[77]
- Stable fly sp.[81]
- Stag beetle spp.[65]
- Tsetse fly[81]
- Water boatman bug[65]
- Water strider spp.[65]
Other invertebrates
- Blood-fluke[84]
- Box crab[85]
- Harvest spider sp.[86]
- Hawaiian orb-weaver (spider)[86]
- Incirrate octopus spp.[85]
- Jumping spiders[86]
- Mite sp.[81]
- Spiny-headed worm[87]
See also
- Against Nature?, an exhibit at the University of Oslo's Natural History Museum that took place until 19 August 2007.
- Anthropomorphism
- Behavioral ecology is the study of the ecological and evolutionary basis for animal behavior
- Biodiversity
- Bioethics
- Biology and sexual orientation
- Ethology is the scientific study of animal behavior, and a branch of zoology; cognitive ethology fuses cognitive science and classical ethology to observe animals under more-or-less natural conditions
- Evolutionary biology
- Homosexual behavior in animals#Birds
- Innate bisexuality
- Sexual selection
Bibliography
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- Bagemihl, Bruce (1999). Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity. St. Martin's Press ISBN 0-312-19239-8
- Caramagno, Thomas C (2002). Irreconcilable Differences? Intellectual Stalemate in the Gay Rights Debate; Praeger/Greenwood, ISBN 0275977218.
- Cooper, J.B. "An Exploratory Study on African Lions" in Comparative Psychology Monographs 17:1-48.
- Cziko, Gary (2000) The Things We Do: Using the Lessons of Bernard and Darwin to Understand the What, How, and Why of Our Behavior; MIT Press, ISBN 0262032775.
- de Waal, Frans B. M. (2001) The Ape and The Sushi Master: Cultural Reflections by a Primatologist; Basic Books (chapter Bonobos and Fig Leaves).
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- Harrold, Max (16 February 1999). "Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity" The Advocate, reprinted in Highbeam Encyclopedia. Retrieved on 10 September 2007.
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- Liggett, Dave; Columbus Zoo and Aquarium staff. "African Forest: Bonobo". Columbus Zoo and Aquarium. Archived from the original on June 2, 2002. Retrieved November 14, 2011.
...frequent sex (including male-to-male and female-to-female) characterize bonobo society.
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References
- ↑ Smith (February 7, 2004)
- 1 2 Bagemihl (1999)
- 1 2 3 News-medical.net (2006)
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) page 213
- ↑ Harrold (1999)
- ↑ Solimeo (2004)
- ↑ Solimeo (2004b)
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) pages 122-166
- ↑ Roughgarden (2004) pp.13-183
- ↑ Vasey (1995) pages 173-204
- ↑ Sommer & Vasey (2006)
- 1 2 Bagemihl (1999) page 405
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) page 441
- 1 2 Bagemihl (1999) page 469
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) pages 388,389
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) pages 81, 88
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) pages 81, 82, 89
- ↑ de Waal (2001)
- ↑ Liggett (1997–2006)
- ↑ Imaginova (2007j)
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) pages 276–279
- 1 2 Bagemihl (1999) page 339
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) page 334
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) pages 310, 314
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) page 427
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) pages 218, 231, 317
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) page 391
- ↑ Imaginova (2007d)
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) pages 81, 165, 205, 226, 231
- 1 2 Bagemihl (1999) page 432
- ↑ Sell RL, Wells JA, Wypij D (June 1995). "The prevalence of homosexual behavior and attraction in the United States, the United Kingdom and France: results of national population-based samples". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 24 (3): 235–48. doi:10.1007/BF01541598. PMID 7611844.
- ↑ Wellings, K., Field, J., Johnson, A., & Wadsworth, J. (1994). Sexual behavior in Britain: The national survey of sexual attitudes and lifestyles. London, UK: Penguin Books.
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) page 455-457
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) page 448
- 1 2 Bagemihl (1999) pages 632-5
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) pages 83
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) pages 544-8
- 1 2 Bagemihl (1999) page 621-6
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) pages 602-5
- ↑ 365 Gay.com (2005)
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) pages 491-5
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) pages 606-10
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) page 639
- ↑ Mating Call (1979)
- 1 2 3 4 Bagemihl (1999), page 665
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999), page 37
- 1 2 3 4 Bagemihl (1999), pages 658, 664
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Bagemihl (1999), page 658
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999), page 664
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999), pages 658, 665
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999), pages 232, 233, 244
- ↑ LeVay, (19 September 2007)
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Bagemihl (1999), page 657
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Bagemihl (1999), page 657, 658
- 1 2 Budzinski, R.-M. (1997) Homosexuelles Verhalten bei Geckos der Gattung Phelsuma. Sauria 19 (3): 33-34
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999), pages 232, 664
- 1 2 Bagemihl (1999), pages 663–664
- 1 2 Bagemihl (1999), pages 657, 658
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999), pages 243, 664
- ↑ Dunkle (1991)
- ↑ Utzeri (1990)
- 1 2 Out magazine, By The Numbers sourced to the Journal of Evolutionary Biology; February 2009. Accessed 2009-01-17.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Bagemihl (1999), page 666
- ↑ Tatarnic1 et al., 22 March 2006
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Bagemihl (1999) page 660
- 1 2 Bagemihl (1999) page 667
- 1 2 3 Bagemihl (1999) pages 704, 713
- 1 2 3 4 5 Bagemihl (1999) pages 150, 232, 236, 246
- 1 2 3 Bagemihl (1999) pages 33–34, 196, 217, 219, 232
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) page 668
- 1 2 3 Bagemihl (1999) page 666
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) page 595
- 1 2 Bagemihl (1999) pages 9, 649, 665
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) page 658
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) page 3
- ↑ Kureck, I. M., Neumann, A., & Foitzik, S. (2011). "Wingless ant males adjust mate-guarding behaviour to the competitive situation in the nest". Animal Behaviour. 82 (2): 339–346. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.05.008.
- 1 2 3 4 Bagemihl (1999) page 232
- 1 2 Bagemihl (1999) pages 666, 660
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) pages 661–2
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999) page 661
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Bagemihl (1999), pages 661–2
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999), page 659
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999), page 661
- ↑ Zimmer (2000)
- 1 2 Bagemihl (1999) page 657
- 1 2 3 Bagemihl (1999) pages 236, 704, 713
- ↑ Bagemihl (1999), pages 668, 667
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