List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine

Front side (obverse) of the Nobel Prize Medal for Physiology or Medicine

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (Swedish: Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin) is awarded annually by the Swedish Karolinska Institute to scientists and doctors in the various fields of physiology or medicine. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel (who died in 1896), awarded for outstanding contributions in chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine.[1] As dictated by Nobel's will, the award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and awarded by a committee that consists of five members and an executive secretary elected by the Karolinska Institute.[2][3] While commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine, Nobel specifically stated that the prize be awarded for "physiology or medicine" in his will. Because of this, the prize can be awarded in a broader range of fields.[3] The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to Emil Adolf von Behring, of Germany. Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award that has varied throughout the years.[4] In 1901, von Behring received 150,782 SEK, which is equal to 7,731,004 SEK in December 2008. In 2013, the prize was awarded to James E. Rothman, Randy W. Schekman and Thomas C. Südhof;[5] they were recognised "after discovering how cells precisely transport material".[6] The award is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death.[7]

Laureates have won the Nobel Prize in a wide range of fields that relate to physiology or medicine. As of 2009, 8 Prizes have been awarded for contributions in the field of signal transduction by G proteins and second messengers, 13 have been awarded for contributions in the field of neurobiology and 13 have been awarded for contributions in Intermediary Metabolism.[3] Gerhard Domagk (1939), a German, was not allowed by his government to accept the prize. He later received a medal and diploma, but not the money.[8] Twelve women have won the prize: Gerty Cori (1947), Rosalyn Yalow (1977), Barbara McClintock (1983), Rita Levi-Montalcini (1986), Gertrude B. Elion (1988), Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard (1995), Linda B. Buck (2004), Françoise Barré-Sinoussi (2008), Elizabeth H. Blackburn (2009), Carol W. Greider (2009), May-Britt Moser (2014)[9] and Tu Youyou (2015). As of 2016, the prize has been awarded to 211 individuals. There have been nine years in which the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was not awarded (1915–1918, 1921, 1925, 1940–1942).

Laureates

1901–1950

Year Laureate[A] Country[B] Rationale[C]
1901 Emil Adolf von Behring  Germany "for his work on serum therapy, especially its application against diphtheria, by which he has opened a new road in the domain of medical science and thereby placed in the hands of the physician a victorious weapon against illness and deaths"[10]
1902 Sir Ronald Ross  United Kingdom
 India		 "for his work on malaria, by which he has shown how it enters the organism and thereby has laid the foundation for successful research on this disease and methods of combating it"[11]
1903 Niels Ryberg Finsen  Denmark
( Faroe Islands)		 "[for] his contribution to the treatment of diseases, especially lupus vulgaris, with concentrated light radiation, whereby he has opened a new avenue for medical science"[12]
1904 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov  Russia "in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged"[13]
1905 Robert Koch  Germany "for his investigations and discoveries in relation to tuberculosis"[14]
1906 Camillo Golgi  Italy "in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system"[15]
Santiago Ramón y Cajal  Spain
1907 Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran  France "in recognition of his work on the role played by protozoa in causing diseases"[16]
1908 Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov  Russia "in recognition of their work on immunity"[17]
Paul Ehrlich  Germany
1909 Emil Theodor Kocher   Switzerland "for his work on the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid gland"[18]
1910 Albrecht Kossel  Germany "in recognition of the contributions to our knowledge of cell chemistry made through his work on proteins, including the nucleic substances"[19]
1911 Allvar Gullstrand  Sweden "for his work on the dioptrics of the eye"[20]
1912 Alexis Carrel  France "[for] his work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs"[21]
1913 Charles Richet  France "[for] his work on anaphylaxis"[22]
1914 Robert Bárány  Austria-Hungary "for his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus"[23]
1915 Not awarded
1916
1917
1918
1919 Jules Bordet  Belgium "for his discoveries relating to immunity"[24]
1920 Schack August Steenberg Krogh  Denmark "for his discovery of the capillary motor regulating mechanism"[25]
1921 Not awarded
1922 Archibald Vivian Hill  United Kingdom "for his discovery relating to the production of heat in the muscle"[26]
Otto Fritz Meyerhof  Germany "for his discovery of the fixed relationship between the consumption of oxygen and the metabolism of lactic acid in the muscle"[26]
1923 Sir Frederick Grant Banting  Canada "for the discovery of insulin"[27]
John James Rickard Macleod  United Kingdom
1924 Willem Einthoven  Netherlands "for the discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram"[28]
1925 Not awarded
1926 Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger  Denmark "for his discovery of the Spiroptera carcinoma"[29]
1927 Julius Wagner-Jauregg  Austria "for his discovery of the therapeutic value of malaria inoculation in the treatment of dementia paralytica"[30]
1928 Charles Jules Henri Nicolle  France "for his work on typhus"[31]
1929 Christiaan Eijkman  Netherlands "for his discovery of the antineuritic vitamin"[32]
Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins  United Kingdom "for his discovery of the growth-stimulating vitamins"[32]
1930 Karl Landsteiner  Austria "for his discovery of human blood groups"[33]
1931 Otto Heinrich Warburg  Germany "for his discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme"[34]
1932 Sir Charles Scott Sherrington  United Kingdom "for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons"[35]
Edgar Douglas Adrian  United Kingdom
1933 Thomas Hunt Morgan  United States "for his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity"[36]
1934 George Hoyt Whipple  United States "for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anaemia"[37]
George Richards Minot  United States
William Parry Murphy  United States
1935 Hans Spemann  Germany "for his discovery of the organizer effect in embryonic development"[38]
1936 Sir Henry Hallett Dale  United Kingdom "for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses"[39]
Otto Loewi  Austria
 Germany
1937 Albert Szent-Györgyi von Nagyrapolt  Hungary "for his discoveries in connection with the biological combustion processes, with special reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid"[40]
1938 Corneille Jean François Heymans  Belgium "for the discovery of the role played by the sinus and aortic mechanisms in the regulation of respiration"[41]
1939 Gerhard Domagk  Germany "for the discovery of the antibacterial effects of prontosil"[42]
1940 Not awarded
1941
1942
1943 Carl Peter Henrik Dam  Denmark "for his discovery of vitamin K"[43]
Edward Adelbert Doisy  United States "for his discovery of the chemical nature of vitamin K"[43]
1944 Joseph Erlanger  United States "for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres"[44]
Herbert Spencer Gasser  United States
1945 Sir Alexander Fleming  United Kingdom "for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases"[45]
Sir Ernst Boris Chain  United Kingdom
Howard Walter Florey  Australia
1946 Hermann Joseph Muller  United States "for the discovery of the production of mutations by means of X-ray irradiation"[46]
1947 Carl Ferdinand Cori  United States "for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen"[47]
Gerty Theresa Cori, née Radnitz  United States
Bernardo Alberto Houssay  Argentina "for his discovery of the part played by the hormone of the anterior pituitary lobe in the metabolism of sugar"[47]
1948 Paul Hermann Müller   Switzerland "for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods"[48]
1949 Walter Rudolf Hess   Switzerland "for his discovery of the functional organization of the interbrain as a coordinator of the activities of the internal organs"[49]
António Caetano Egas Moniz  Portugal "for his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy (lobotomy) in certain psychoses"[49]
1950 Philip Showalter Hench  United States "for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects"[50]
Edward Calvin Kendall  United States
Tadeusz Reichstein   Switzerland
 Poland

1951–2000

Year Laureate[A] Country[B] Rationale[C]
1951 Max Theiler  South Africa "for his discoveries concerning yellow fever and how to combat it"[51]
1952 Selman Abraham Waksman  United States "for his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis"[52]
1953 Sir Hans Adolf Krebs  United Kingdom "for his discovery of the citric acid cycle"[53]
Fritz Albert Lipmann  United States "for his discovery of co-enzyme A and its importance for intermediary metabolism"[53]
1954 John Franklin Enders  United States "for their discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue"[54]
Frederick Chapman Robbins  United States
Thomas Huckle Weller  United States
1955 Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell  Sweden "for his discoveries concerning the nature and mode of action of oxidation enzymes"[55]
1956 André Frédéric Cournand  United States "for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system"[56]
Werner Forssmann  West Germany
Dickinson W. Richards  United States
1957 Daniel Bovet  Italy "for his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles"[57]
1958 George Wells Beadle  United States "for their discovery that genes act by regulating definite chemical events"[58]
Edward Lawrie Tatum  United States
Joshua Lederberg  United States "for his discoveries concerning genetic recombination and the organization of the genetic material of bacteria"[58]
1959 Arthur Kornberg  United States "for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid"[59]
Severo Ochoa  United States
 Spain
1960 Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet  Australia "for discovery of acquired immunological tolerance"[60]
Sir Peter Brian Medawar  Brazil
 United Kingdom
1961 Georg von Békésy  United States "for his discoveries of the physical mechanism of stimulation within the cochlea"[61]
1962 Francis Harry Compton Crick  United Kingdom "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material"[62]
James Dewey Watson  United States
Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins  New Zealand
 United Kingdom
1963 Sir John Carew Eccles  Australia "for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane"[63]
Sir Alan Lloyd Hodgkin  United Kingdom
Sir Andrew Fielding Huxley  United Kingdom
1964 Konrad Bloch  United States "for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism"[64]
Feodor Lynen  West Germany
1965 François Jacob  France "for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis"[65]
André Lwoff  France
Jacques Monod  France
1966 Peyton Rous  United States "for his discovery of tumour-inducing viruses"[66]
Charles Brenton Huggins  United States "for his discoveries concerning hormonal treatment of prostatic cancer"[66]
1967 Ragnar Granit  Finland
 Sweden		 "for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye"[67]
Haldan Keffer Hartline  United States
George Wald  United States
1968 Robert W. Holley  United States "for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis"[68]
Har Gobind Khorana  India
 United States[69]
Marshall W. Nirenberg  United States
1969 Max Delbrück  United States "for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses"[70]
Alfred D. Hershey  United States
Salvador E. Luria  Italy
 United States
1970 Julius Axelrod  United States "for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation"[71]
Ulf von Euler  Sweden
Sir Bernard Katz  United Kingdom
1971 Earl W. Sutherland, Jr.  United States "for his discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the action of hormones"[72]
1972 Gerald M. Edelman  United States "for their discoveries concerning the chemical structure of antibodies"[73]
Rodney R. Porter  United Kingdom
1973 Karl von Frisch  West Germany "for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns"[74]
Konrad Lorenz  Austria
Nikolaas Tinbergen  Netherlands
1974 Albert Claude  Belgium "for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell"[75]
Christian de Duve  Belgium
George E. Palade  Romania
1975 David Baltimore  United States "for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell"[76]
Renato Dulbecco  Italy
 United States
Howard Martin Temin  United States
1976 Baruch S. Blumberg  United States "for their discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases"[77]
D. Carleton Gajdusek  United States
1977 Roger Guillemin  United States "for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain"[78]
Andrew V. Schally  United States
 Poland
Rosalyn Yalow  United States "for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones"[78]
1978 Werner Arber   Switzerland "for the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics"[79]
Daniel Nathans  United States
Hamilton O. Smith  United States
1979 Allan M. Cormack  South Africa "for the development of computer assisted tomography"[80]
Sir Godfrey N. Hounsfield  United Kingdom
1980 Baruj Benacerraf  Venezuela "for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions"[81]
Jean Dausset  France
George D. Snell  United States
1981 Roger W. Sperry  United States "for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres"[82]
David H. Hubel  Canada "for their discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system"[82]
Torsten N. Wiesel  Sweden
1982 Sune K. Bergström  Sweden "for their discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances"[83]
Bengt I. Samuelsson  Sweden
Sir John R. Vane  United Kingdom
1983 Barbara McClintock  United States "for her discovery of mobile genetic elements"[84]
1984 Niels K. Jerne  Denmark "for theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies"[85]
Georges J.F. Köhler  West Germany
César Milstein  Argentina
 United Kingdom
1985 Michael S. Brown  United States "for their discoveries concerning the regulation of cholesterol metabolism"[86]
Joseph L. Goldstein  United States
1986 Stanley Cohen  United States "for their discoveries of growth factors"[87]
Rita Levi-Montalcini  Italy
1987 Susumu Tonegawa  Japan "for his discovery of the genetic principle for generation of antibody diversity"[88]
1988 Sir James W. Black  United Kingdom "for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment"[89]
Gertrude B. Elion  United States
George H. Hitchings  United States
1989 J. Michael Bishop  United States "for their discovery of the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes"[90]
Harold E. Varmus  United States
1990 Joseph E. Murray  United States "for their discoveries concerning organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of human disease"[91]
E. Donnall Thomas  United States
1991 Erwin Neher  Germany "for their discoveries concerning the function of single ion channels in cells"[92]
Bert Sakmann  Germany
1992 Edmond H. Fischer   Switzerland
 United States		 "for their discoveries concerning reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological regulatory mechanism"[93]
Edwin G. Krebs  United States
1993 Sir Richard J. Roberts  United Kingdom "for their discoveries of split genes"[94]
Phillip A. Sharp  United States
1994 Alfred G. Gilman  United States "for their discovery of G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells"[95]
Martin Rodbell  United States
1995 Edward B. Lewis  United States "for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development"[96]
Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard  Germany
Eric F. Wieschaus  United States
1996 Peter C. Doherty  Australia "for their discoveries concerning the specificity of the cell mediated immune defence"[97]
Rolf M. Zinkernagel   Switzerland
1997 Stanley B. Prusiner  United States "for his discovery of Prions - a new biological principle of infection"[98]
1998 Robert F. Furchgott  United States "for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system"[99]
Louis J. Ignarro  United States
Ferid Murad  United States
1999 Günter Blobel  Germany
 United States		 "for the discovery that proteins have intrinsic signals that govern their transport and localization in the cell"[100]
2000 Arvid Carlsson  Sweden "for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system"[101]
Paul Greengard  United States
Eric R. Kandel  United States

2001–current

Year Laureate[A] Country[B] Rationale[C]
2001 Leland H. Hartwell  United States "for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle"[102]
Sir Tim Hunt  United Kingdom
Sir Paul M. Nurse  United Kingdom
2002 Sydney Brenner  South Africa "for their discoveries concerning 'genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death'"[103]
H. Robert Horvitz  United States
Sir John E. Sulston  United Kingdom
2003 Paul Lauterbur  United States "for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging"[104]
Sir Peter Mansfield  United Kingdom
2004 Richard Axel  United States "for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system"[105]
Linda B. Buck  United States
2005 Barry J. Marshall  Australia "for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease"[106]
J. Robin Warren  Australia
2006 Andrew Z. Fire  United States "for their discovery of RNA interference - gene silencing by double-stranded RNA"[107]
Craig C. Mello  United States
2007 Mario R. Capecchi  United States "for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells."[108]
Sir Martin J. Evans  United Kingdom
Oliver Smithies  United States
2008 Harald zur Hausen  Germany "for his discovery of human papilloma viruses causing cervical cancer"[109]
Françoise Barré-Sinoussi  France "for their discovery of human immunodeficiency virus"[109]
Luc Montagnier  France
2009 Elizabeth H. Blackburn  United States
 Australia		 "for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase"[110]
Carol W. Greider  United States
Jack W. Szostak  United States
2010 Sir Robert G. Edwards  United Kingdom "for the development of in vitro fertilization"[111]
2011
Bruce A. Beutler  United States "for their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity"[112]
Jules A. Hoffmann  France
Ralph M. Steinman  United States
 Canada		 "for his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity"[112]
(awarded posthumously)[113][114]
2012 Sir John B. Gurdon  United Kingdom "for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent"[115]
Shinya Yamanaka  Japan
2013 James E. Rothman  United States "for their discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system in our cells"[5]
Randy W. Schekman  United States
Thomas C. Südhof  United States
 Germany
2014 John O'Keefe  United States
 United Kingdom		 "for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain"
May-Britt Moser  Norway
Edvard I. Moser  Norway
2015
William C. Campbell  Ireland
 United States		 "for their discoveries concerning a novel therapy against infections caused by roundworm parasites"[116]
Satoshi Ōmura  Japan
Tu Youyou  China "for her discoveries concerning a novel therapy against Malaria"[116]
2016 Yoshinori Ohsumi  Japan "for his discoveries of mechanisms for autophagy"[117]

Notes

^ A. The form and spelling of the names in the name column is according to nobelprize.org, the official website of the Nobel Foundation. Alternative spellings and name forms, where they exist, are given at the articles linked from this column. Where available, an image of each Nobel laureate is provided. For the official pictures provided by the Nobel Foundation, see the pages for each Nobel laureate at nobelprize.org.

^ B. The information in the country column is according to nobelprize.org, the official website of the Nobel Foundation. This information may not necessarily reflect the recipient's birthplace or citizenship.

^ C. The citation for each award is quoted (not always in full) from nobelprize.org, the official website of the Nobel Foundation. The links in this column are to articles (or sections of articles) on the history and areas of physiology and medicine for which the awards were presented. The links are intended only as a guide and explanation. For a full account of the work done by each Nobel laureate, please see the biography articles linked from the name column.

References

General

Specific

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  5. 1 2 "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2013". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2013-10-07.
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  86. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1985". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  87. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1986". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  88. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1987". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  89. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1988". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  90. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1989". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  91. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1990". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  92. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1991". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  93. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1992". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  94. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1993". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  95. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1994". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  96. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1995". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  97. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1996". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  98. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1997". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  99. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1998". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  100. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1999". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  101. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2000". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  102. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2001". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  103. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2002". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  104. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2003". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  105. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2004". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  106. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2005". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  107. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2006". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  108. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2007". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-10-08.
  109. 1 2 "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2008". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
  110. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2009". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2009-10-05.
  111. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2010". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2010-10-04.
  112. 1 2 "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2011". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
  113. ↑ "Ralph Steinman Remains Nobel Laureate". The Nobel Foundation. 3 October 2011. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
  114. ↑ Sample, Ian (2011-10-03). "Nobel prize to be awarded to dead scientist". The Guardian. London. Retrieved October 10, 2011. The Nobel foundation concluded that the award should stand, saying: "The Nobel prize to Ralph Steinman was made in good faith, based on the assumption that the Nobel laureate was alive."
  115. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2012". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2012-10-08.
  116. 1 2 "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2015". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 5 October 2015.
  117. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2016". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2016-10-03.
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