List of French inventions and discoveries
Arts & Entertainment
- Gothic art in the mid-12th century.[1]
- Oboe, or hautbois, in the mid-17th century France, probably by Jacques-Martin Hotteterre and his family or by the Philidor family.[2] Variants of the oboe like the graïle, the bombard and the piston were later created in Languedoc and Brittany.
1800s engraving French Roulette
- Many bagpipes were developed in France,[3][4] including the Biniou, the bodega, the Boha, the Bousine, the Cabrette, the Chabrette, the Cornemuse du Centre, the loure, the Musette bechonnet, the Musette bressane and the Musette de cour.
- First mechanical metronome by Étienne Loulié in 1696 (but the modern form of the metronome was patented only in 1815[5]).
- Rococo in the early 18th century.[6]
- Clavecin électrique, earliest surviving electric-powered musical instrument, in 1759 by Jean-Baptiste Thillaie Delaborde[7]
- The Roulette was developed in 18th century France[8] from a primitive form created by Blaise Pascal (17th century).[9] In 1843, Louis and François Blanc introduced the single 0 style roulette wheel.
- Many other gambling games and card games (including the French suits around 1480)[10] were invented in France, some from earlier games :
- From earlier Italian games : Basset, Biribi and Tarot (see Tarot of Marseilles and French tarot)
- From earlier Spanish games : Quinze and, maybe, Piquet
- Other : Faro (from the Basset), Brelan, Bouillotte, Commerce, Trente et Quarante, Belote and maybe Blackjack.[11]
- Photography :
- Photolithography and the first photographic image ever produced in 1822 by Nicéphore Niépce (Saône-et-Loire)[12]
- Daguerreotype by Nicéphore Niépce and Louis Daguerre
- Hércules Florence coined photographie in 1834, French word at the origin of the English word photography.[13]
A scene from A Trip to the Moon (1902) by Georges Méliès.
- Collotype process by Alphonse Poitevin in 1856.[14]
- The Praxinoscope of Charles-Émile Reynaud (1877) is an animation device intermediary between the zoetrope and the cinema.
- The Cabaret by Rodolphe Salis in 1881 in Paris.[15]
- The Chronophotography by Étienne-Jules Marey (developed by himself, Eadweard Muybridge, Albert Londe, Georges Demeny and Ottomar Anschutz) in 1882 in Paris.[16]
- The Cinema developed from chronophotography :
- First motion picture camera and first projector by Louis Le Prince, Frenchman who worked in the United Kingdom and the United States.[17][18][19]
- The Cinematograph by Léon Bouly (1892).
- first commercial, public screening of cinematographic films by Auguste and Louis Lumière in Paris on 28 December 1895.[20]
- Georges Méliès : first filmmaker to use the stop trick, or substitution, multiple exposures, time-lapse photography, dissolves, and hand-painted color in his films. His most famous film, A Trip to the Moon (Le voyage dans la Lune), in 1902, was the first science fiction film and the most popular movie of its time (another of his productions, Le Manoir du diable is also sometimes considered as the first horror movie).[21]
- Developments of the modern Piano (invented by the Italian Bartolomeo Cristofori) : Pleyel et Cie (double piano), Sébastien Érard (double escapement action), Jean-Louis Boisselot (sostenuto pedal), Henri Fourneaux (Player piano).[22]
- Ondes Martenot in 1928 by Maurice Martenot (early electronic musical instrument ).[23]
- Gemmail in the 1930s by painter Jean Crotti.[24]
- Clavioline, an electronic keyboard instrument, by Constant Martin in 1947.[25]
- Etch A Sketch by André Cassagnes in the late 1950s.[26][27][28][29]
- DivX around 1998 by Jerome Rota at Montpellier.[30]
Chemistry
Appert canning jar
- Discovery of natural rubber/latex by Charles Marie de La Condamine in 1736.[31]
- Oxygen by Antoine Lavoisier in 1778.[32]
- Hydrogen by Antoine Lavoisier in 1783.[32]
- Argand lamp by Swiss-born Aimé Argand and by Antoine Quinquet in 1783 in Paris.[33]
- The first extensive list of elements (see periodic table) by Antoine Lavoisier in 1787.
- Leblanc process by Nicolas Leblanc in 1791.[34]
- Beryllium by Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin[35]
- Chromium by Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin in 1797[32]
- Appertization or Canning by Nicolas Appert in 1809.[36]
- Polyvinyl chloride in 1838 by Henri Victor Regnault (but the PVC will only be plasticized industrially nearly a century later).[37]
- Photovoltaic effect by A. E. Becquerel in 1839.[38][39]
- Pasteurization by Louis Pasteur and Claude Bernard in April 1862.[40]
- Gallium by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875.[32]
- Production of Liquid oxygen by Louis Paul Cailletet in 1877 (at the same time but with another method than Raoul Pictet).[41]
- Artificial silk by Hilaire de Chardonnet in 1884.[42]
- Chamberland filter, also known as a Pasteur–Chamberland filter, a porcelain water filter invented by Charles Chamberland in 1884.[43]
- Fluorine by Henri Moissan in 1886[32]
- Aluminium electrolysis in 1886 by Paul Héroult (at the same time but independently from American Martin Hall).[44]
- Europium by Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1890[32]
- Viscose by Hilaire de Chardonnet in Échirolles in 1891.[45]
- Chemical Bleach by Claude Berthollet and Antoine Germain Labarraque (with the Swedish chemist Karl Wilhelm Scheele and Scottish chemist Charles Tennant).[46]
Neon sign
- Berthelot's reagent by Marcellin Berthelot in the late nineteenth century.
- Polonium by Pierre and Marie Curie in July 1898.[32]
- Radium by Pierre and Marie Curie in December 1898.[32]
- Boron carbide by Henri Moissan in 1899.[47]
- Actinium by André-Louis Debierne in 1899.[48][49]
- Discovery of the Grignard reaction or Grignard reagent by Victor Grignard[50] in 1900.
- Verneuil process (method to manufacture synthetic gemstones) by Auguste Verneuil in 1902.
- Laminated glass by the French chemist Edouard Benedictus in 1903.
- Moissanite by Henri Moissan in 1904.[51][52]
- Neon lighting by Georges Claude in 1910.[53]
- Francium by Marguerite Perey in 1939.[32]
Physics, Mathematics & Measure
The Foucault pendulum in the Panthéon, Paris.
- Cartesian Coordinate System by René Descartes in 1637 (and independently by Pierre de Fermat at the same period).
- The calculator by Blaise Pascal (Pascaline) in 1642.[54] (see also Adding machine)
- Probability theory by Pierre de Fermat and Blaise Pascal in the seventeenth century (with Gerolamo Cardano and Christiaan Huygens).[55]
- Vernier scale by Pierre Vernier in 1631.[56][57]
- Spirit level by Melchisédech Thévenot in 1661.[58]
- Roberval Balance by Gilles de Roberval in 1669.[59]
- Réaumur scale by René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur in 1730.[60]
- Pitot tube by Henri Pitot in 1732[61] and modified to its modern form in the mid-19th century by Henry Darcy.[62]
- The conservation of mass by Antoine Lavoisier[63] (18th century).
- Modern hydrometer by Jacques Charles.[64]
- Metric system during the French Revolution.[65][66] and several measures used in physics in the SI.
- Laplace's equation, Laplace operator, Laplace transform, Laplace distribution, Laplace's demon, Laplace expansion, Young–Laplace equation, Laplace number, Laplace limit, Laplace invariant, Laplace principle, proof that every equation of an even degree must have at least one real quadratic factor, solution of the linear partial differential equation of the second order and general proof of the Lagrange reversion theorem by Pierre-Simon Laplace in the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth century.[67]
- The Gay-lussac Scale used by hydrometers and alcoholometers by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (after an idea of Jacques Charles).
Optical pumping of a laser rod (bottom) with an arc lamp (top). Red: hot. Blue: cold. Green: light. Non-green arrows: water flow. Solid colors: metal. Light colors: fused quartz. Refs: , ,
- Polariscope and discovery of Rotary polarization by François Arago. He invented the first polarization filter in 1812.[68]
- Arithmometer by Thomas de Colmar in 1820.[69]
- Dynamometer by Gaspard de Prony (de Prony brake) in 1821.[70]
- Electrometer by Jean Peltier.
- Foucault pendulum by Léon Foucault (who also developed and named the Gyroscope) in February 1851 in the Meridian of the Paris Observatory.
- Ocean thermal energy conversion in 1881 by Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval (first OTEC plant in 1930 in Cuba by his student Georges Claude).[71]
- Radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896.[72]
- Theorical foundations and mathematical framework of Special relativity by Henri Poincaré, before Albert Einstein used his work in 1905 and later.[73]
- Integral imaging by Gabriel Lippmann on March 3, 1908.[74]
- Darrieus wind turbine by Georges Jean Marie Darrieus in 1931.[75]
- Optical pumping by Alfred Kastler in the early 1950s.[76]
- The multiwire proportional chamber by Georges Charpak[77] in 1968.
Medicine & Biology
Modern stethoscope.
Insulin pump, showing an infusion set loaded into spring-loaded insertion device.
- Ligature of arteries in 1565 by Ambroise Paré.[78]
- Blood transfusion by Jean-Baptiste Denys on June 15, 1667.[79] and first modern transfusion by Émile Jeanbrau on October 16, 1914 (after the first non-direct transfusion performed on March 27, 1914 by the Belgian doctor Albert Hustin).
- Modern dentistry by Pierre Fauchard (father of modern dentistry, early eighteenth century).[80][81]
- Modern Cataract surgery by Jacques Daviel in 1748 (even if early cataract surgery already existed in the antiquity).
- Discovery of Osmosis in 1748 by Jean-Antoine Nollet.[82] The word "osmosis" descends from the words "endosmose" and "exosmose", which were coined by French physician René Joachim Henri Dutrochet (1776–1847) from the Greek words ένδον (endon : within), έξο (exo : outside), and ωσμος (osmos : push, impulsion).
- The first lifesize obstetrical mannequin, for teaching, by Angelique du Coudray in the 1750s.[83]
- Stethoscope in 1816 by René Laennec at the Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital in Paris.[84]
- Medical Quinine in 1820 by Joseph Bienaimé Caventou.[85]
- Codeine first isolated in 1832 by Pierre Robiquet.[86]
- Aspirin in 1853 by Charles Frédéric Gerhardt.[87]
- Hypodermic needle in 1853 by Charles Pravaz.[88]
- Blind experiment by Claude Bernard (nineteenth century).[89]
- Discovery of Plasmodium and its role in malaria by Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran on November 6, 1880.[90][91]
- Incubator or Neonatal intensive care unit in 1881 by Étienne Stéphane Tarnier.[92] His student, Pierre-Constant Budin, followed in Tarnier’s footsteps, creating perinatology in the late 1890s.[93][94]
- Rabies vaccine by Louis Pasteur and Émile Roux in 1885.[95]
- Antibiotics by Louis Pasteur and Jean Paul Vuillemin (by means of natural antibiosis; modern artificial antibiotics were developed later by the British Alexander Fleming).[96]
- Mantoux test by Charles Mantoux in 1907.[97][98]
- Tuberculosis vaccine by Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin in 1921 (BCG).[99]
- Antipsychotics in 1952 by Henri Laborit (chlorpromazine).[100]
- Discovery of the cause of Down syndrome (chromosome 21 trisomy) by Jérôme Lejeune[101] in 1958-1959 (syndrome first described by Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol, Édouard Séguin and John Langdon Down)
- First bone marrow transplant by Georges Mathé, a French oncologist, in 1959 on five Yugoslavian nuclear workers whose own marrow had been damaged by irradiation caused by a Criticality accident at the Vinča Nuclear Institute.[102][103][104][105]
- Insulin pump in 1981 by Jacques Mirouze (first implantation) in Montpellier.[106]
- Discovery of human immunodeficiency virus by Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier[107] (1983).
- Deep brain stimulation (DBS) by Alim-Louis Benabid in 1987.[108][109]
- Mifepristone, the abortion pill, by Étienne-Émile Baulieu in 1988.[110][111]
- Hand transplantation on September 23, 1998 in Lyon by a team assembled from different countries around the world including Jean-Michel Dubernard who, shortly thereafter, performed the first successful double hand transplant.[112]
- Telesurgery by Jacques Marescaux and his team on 7 September 2001 across the Atlantic Ocean (New-York-Strasbourg, Lindbergh Operation).[113]
- Face transplant on November 27, 2005[114][115] by Dr Bernard Devauchelle.
Transportation
A model of the Montgolfier brothers' balloon at the London Science Museum
Air France Concorde in 1977
- Taxi by Nicolas Sauvage in Paris in 1640 (first documented but maybe existed earlier).[116]
- Steamboat by Denis Papin.[117] A boat with the world's first internal combustion engine was developed in 1807 by fellow Frenchman Nicéphore Niépce
- Automobile by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot in 1769.[118][119]
- Hot Air Balloon (later, Aerostat and Airship) by Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, François Laurent d'Arlandes, the Montgolfier brothers[120][121] and Jacques Charles (who also invented the first hydrogen-filled balloon).
- Parachute in the late 18th century by Louis-Sébastien Lenormand.[122]
- Compressed air vehicle and Pneumatic motor by Andraud and Tessie of Motay in Chaillot on July 9, 1840,[123] improved by Louis Mékarski in 1843 in Nantes (see Mekarski system and Compressed air car).
- Airplane :
- First glider to fly higher than its point of departure, by Jean-Marie Le Bris in 1856.[124]
- first manned, powered, heavier-than-air flight of a significant distance on October 9, 1890 by Clément Ader.[125]
- first aileron built by Robert Esnault-Pelterie in 1904.[126] Modern design of ailerons by Henri Farman.[127]
- first aircraft design with the modern monoplane tractor configuration of aircraft by Louis Bleriot in 1908.[128][129]
- In 1909, he completed the first flight across a large body of water in a heavier-than-air craft, when he crossed the English Channel.[130][131][132] He also is credited as the first person to make a working monoplane.
- Injector by Henri Giffard in 1858[133]
- Internal combustion engine between 1859 and 1861 by Alphonse Beau de Rochas and Belgian-born Étienne Lenoir in Paris.[134]
- Submarine : The first submarine not relying on human power was the French Plongeur (meaning diver), launched in 1863, and using compressed air at 180 psi (1241 kPa).[135]
- Bicycle in 1864 by Pierre Michaux and Pierre Lallement (endless power-transmitting chain invented by Jacques de Vaucanson in 1770 and applied to bicycles by J. F. Tretz).[136][137][138]
- Gunpowder powered ornithopter by Gustave Trouvé in 1870[139]
- First manned balloon mail during the Siege of Paris (1871)
- First outboard motorboat by Gustave Trouvé around 1870,[140] patented in May 1880[141]
- Inflatable tyres for cars by Édouard Michelin in 1895[142]
- Scooter[143] (1902) and Moped.
- V8 engine by Léon Levavasseur in 1902[144]
- Modern automobile Drum brake in 1902 by Louis Renault.[145]
- Helicopter : in 1907, the two first flying helicopters were experimented independently by Louis Breguet[146] and Paul Cornu.[147]
- Seaplane by Gabriel Voisin in June 1905 (non-autonomous) and by Henri Fabre in 1910 (autonomous : Fabre Hydravion).[148]
- Ramjet by René Lorin in 1913.[149]
- Catalytic converter by Eugene Houdry in 1956.[150][151]
- Concorde by Aérospatiale and the British Aircraft Corporation (1969)
- HDI diesel engine in 1998 by PSA Peugeot Citroën.
Clothing
Polo shirt outline
- Bliaut in the 12th century.[152]
- French hood in the early 16th century.[153]
- Attifet in the 16th century.[154]
- Jacquard loom, a mechanical loom, invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1801, that simplifies the process of manufacturing textiles with complex patterns such as brocade, damask, and matelasse.[155][156]
- Denim Textile (French town of Nîmes, from which 'denim' de Nîmes gets its name) [157]
- The Sewing machine by Barthélemy Thimonnier in 1830.[158]
- Modern bra by Herminie Cadolle in 1889.[159]
- Little black dress by Coco Chanel in the 1920s,[160][161]
- Polo shirt by René Lacoste in 1926.[162][163][164][165]
- Modern Bikini by Louis Réard in 1946.[166]
- classic modern pencil skirt by Christian Dior in the late 1940s.[167][168]
- A-line by Yves Saint Laurent in 1958 (term first used in 1955 by Christian Dior).[169]
- Modern Raincoat (not to confuse with the older British trench-coat) by Guy Cotten in 1960.[170]
Food and cooking
Denis Papin's steam digester
- Steam digester by Denis Papin in 1679.[171]
- Cafetiere : Percolation (method used by Coffee percolator) by Jean-Baptiste de Belloy in 1800 and the French press (another method to make coffee).[172]
- Canning (see above in the chemistry section)
- Absorption refrigerator by Ferdinand Carré in 1858.[173]
- Margarine by Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès in 1869[174] after the discovery of margaric acid by Michel Eugène Chevreul in 1813.[175]
- Clementine in 1902 by Clément Rodier.[176]
- Food processor by Pierre Verdun between 1963 and 1971.[177]
- Crêpe[178] (List of French dishes)
- Coq au vin[179]
Baguette
- Champagne[180] and other French wines.
- 350 to 400 distinct types of French cheese : List of French cheeses
- Baguette[181]
- Cassoulet[182]
- Foie gras[181]
- Escargot
- Frog legs
- Ratatouille[181]
- Camembert by Marie Harel
Weapons and military
Early-19th century socket bayonet
- Bec de corbin, a popular medieval weapon.
- Motte-and-bailey, a form of castle.[183]
- The Pot-de-fer, a primitive cannon during the Hundred Years' War.[184]
- Culverin, ancestor of the musket.[185]
- Flintlock by Marin le Bourgeoys in 1612.[186]
- Corvette, a small, maneuverable, lightly armed warship that appeared in the 1670s.
- Bayonet (from French baïonnette)[187]
- Modern military uniform in the mid 17th century.[188]
- Floating battery, first used during the Great Siege of Gibraltar in September 1782.[189][190]
- Mass conscription or Levée en masse during the French Revolution.[191]
- Corps by Napoleon in 1805.[192]
- Carabine à tige by Louis-Étienne de Thouvenin (improvement of an earlier invention by Henri-Gustave Delvigne) before 1844.[193]
- Minié rifle by Claude-Étienne Minié, first reliable (easy to load) muzzle-loading rifle in 1849.[194][195] In the artillery, from 1859, the La Hitte rifled guns were a considerable improvement over the previous smooth-bore guns which had been in use,[196] able to shoot at 3,000 meters either regulars shells, ball-loaded shells or grapeshot. They appear to have been the first case of usage of rifled cannons on a battlefield.[197]
- First naval periscope in 1854 by Hippolyte Marié-Davy.[198][199][200][201]
- Canne de combat and Savate.
- Épée, the modern derivative of the dueling sword, used for fencing.
- Chassepot by Antoine Alphonse Chassepot in 1866.[202]
- Smokeless gunpowder (modern nitrocellulose-based) : Poudre B by Paul Marie Eugène Vieille in 1884.[203][204] It was first used to load the Lebel Model 1886 rifle (invented by Nicolas Lebel), making it the first military firearm to use smokeless powder ammunition. It is also the first rifle to use full metal jacket bullets as its standard ammunition.
- First Air force in 1910.[205]
- Sonar, first ultrasonic submarine detector using an electrostatic method (and first practical military sonar) in 1916-1917 by Paul Langevin (with Constantin Chilowsky).[206]
- Tanks : developed at the same time (1915-1916) in France and in Great Britain. France was the second country to use tanks on the battlefield (after Great Britain). in 1916, the first practical light tank, the Renault FT with the first full 360° rotation turret became, for armour historian Steven Zaloga "the world's first modern tank".[207]
Communication & Computers
Minitel
- Optical Telegraph by Claude Chappe in 1792.[208][209]
- Modern pencil by Nicolas-Jacques Conté in 1795.[210]
- Paper machine by Louis-Nicolas Robert in 1799.[211]
- Fresnel lens by Augustin-Jean Fresnel[212]
- Jean-François Champollion first deciphered the Rosetta Stone (1822) : modern understanding of Egyptian hieroglyphs
- Braille in 1825 by Louis Braille, a blind Frenchman:[213] first digital form of writing.[214]
- Pencil sharpener by Bernard Lassimone in 1828.[215] Therry des Estwaux created an improved mechanical sharpener in 1847.[215]
- Baudot code by Émile Baudot in 1870[216] and a multiplexed printing telegraph system that used his code and allowed multiple transmissions over a single line.[217]
- Coherer by Édouard Branly around 1890.[218][219][220]
- Belinograph (Wirephoto) by Édouard Belin in 1913.[221]
- Bic Cristal in 1949.[222][223]
- Computer-aided manufacturing by Pierre Bézier in 1971 as an engineer at Renault.[224][225]
- Micral, earliest commercial, non-kit personal computer based on a microprocessor, by André Truong Trong Thi and François Gernelle in June 1972.[226]
- Datagrams and CYCLADES in 1972-1973 by Louis Pouzin (which inspired Bob Kahn and Vinton Cerf when they invented the TCP/IP several years later).[227]
- Smart Card by Roland Moreno[228][229] in 1974 after the automated chip card.
- Minitel in 1980.[230]
- Camera phone by Philippe Kahn in 1997.[231][232][233]
- Several Programming languages (non-exhaustive list) :
- Prolog (Logic programming) by a group around Alain Colmerauer in 1972 in Marseille.[234][235]
- LSE, Langage Symbolique d'Enseignement, a French, pedagogical, programming language designed in the 1970s at Supélec.[236]
- Ada (multi-paradigm) by Jean Ichbiah (who also created LIS and Green) in 1980.[237]
- Caml (OCaml by Xavier Leroy, Damien Doligez) developed at INRIA and formerly at ENS since 1985.[238]
- Eiffel (object-oriented) by Bertrand Meyer in 1986.[239]
- STOS BASIC on the Atari ST in 1988 and AMOS BASIC on the Amiga in 1990 by François Lionet and Constantin Sotiropoulos (dialects of BASIC).[240]
- Several keyboards :
Sports
The Olympic Rings, the symbol of the modern Olympic Games, inspired by Pierre de Coubertin
Main article: Sport in France
- Jeu de paume, precursor of tennis, in the 12th century.
- The first autonomous diving suit, the precursor to today's scuba gear, is developed by Paul Lemaire d'Augerville in 1824.
- First documented cycling race, a 1,200 metre race held on May 31, 1868 at the Parc of Saint-Cloud, Paris.[245] The first cycle race covering a distance between two cities was Paris–Rouen (see History of cycling).[246]
- FIFA World Cup by Jules Rimet, FIFA former president.
- UEFA Euro Cup by Henri Delaunay.
- Summer Olympic Games by Pierre de Coubertin.
- International Olympic Committee by Pierre de Coubertin on 23 June 1894.[247]
- On 22 July 1894 the newspaper Le Petit Journal organised the world's first competitive motor race from Paris to Rouen. The first finisher was Count Jules-Albert de Dion but his steamer was ineligible, so the 'official' victory was awarded to Albert Lemaître driving his 3 hp petrol engined Peugeot.
- Pétanque in 1907.[248]
- Triathlon in the 1920s near Paris (Joinville-le-Pont, Meulan and Poissy).[249]
- The Aqua-lung, first Scuba Set (in open-circuit) by Emile Gagnan and Jacques-Yves Cousteau in 1943.[250]
- Parkour in the 1980s by the future Yamakasi, especially David Belle.[251][252]
- Flyboard in 2012 by Franky Zapata.[253] Another version, the Flyboard Air, an air-propelled hoverboard, [254] achieved a Guinness World Record for farthest flight by hoverboard in April 2016.[255]
- Kitesurf aka flysurf in the 1990s by Manu Bertin and ski moutain derivatives
- Wingsuit in the 1990s by Patrick de Gayardon
- Vendée Globe since 1989 by Philippe Jeantot the first round-the-world single-handed yacht race, sailed non-stop and without assistance
- Paris–Dakar Rally since 1978 by Thierry Sabine
- Trophée Jules Verne since 1985 by Yves Le Cornec the fastest circumnavigation of the world (under 80 days) by any type of sailing yacht with no restrictions on the size of the crew
- 24 Heures du Mans translated 24 Hours Le Mans since 1923 the world's oldest active sports car race in endurance racing
- FIA Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile in 1904 translated International Automobile Federation
Miscellaneous
- Detent escapement by Pierre Le Roy in 1748.[256][257][258]
- Carcel burner in 1800.[259]
- developments of battery
- Dry cell battery by Gaston Planté in 1859 (first practical storage lead-acid battery)[260]
- in 1866, Georges Leclanché patented the carbon-zinc wet cell battery called the Leclanché cell.[261]
- Interchangeable parts by Honoré Blanc.[262]
- Binoculars (using roof prisms) in 1870 by Achille Victor Emile Daubresse.[263][264]
- Artificial Cement by Louis Vicat.[265]
- Hairdryer in 1879 by Alexandre Godefroy.[266]
- Modern Dry cleaning in 1855 by Jean Baptiste Jolly.[267]
- Reinforced concrete by Joseph Monier in 1849 and patented in 1867.[268]
- Loppers by Bertrand de Molleville.
- Guillotine
- Hydraulic Shock absorber
- Letterbox
- Modern Safe
- Photolithography
- Power transformer
- Flax spinning frame
- Waste container by Eugène Poubelle
- Ball bearing by Jules Suriray, a Parisian bicycle mechanic, on 3 August 1869.[269]
- Coronagraph by Bernard Lyot in 1930.[270]
- Criminology by Eugène François Vidocq[271][272]
- Stapler
See also
- List of Dutch inventions and discoveries
- List of German inventions and discoveries
- List of Irish inventions and discoveries
- List of Italian inventions
- Scottish inventions and discoveries
- List of Swedish inventions
- List of Welsh inventors
- List of Portuguese inventions and discoveries
- Science in the Middle Ages
- Science in the Age of Enlightenment
References
- ↑ History of Architecture Fiske Kimball, George Harold Edgell p.275
- ↑
- Burgess, Geoffrey, and Bruce Haynes: 2004, The Oboe, The Yale Musical Instrument Series, New Haven, Connecticut and London: Yale University Press. pp. 27, 28, 102. ISBN 0-300-09317-9
- Carse, Adam: 1965, Musical Wind Instruments: A History of the Wind Instruments Used in European Orchestras and Wind-Bands from the Later Middle Ages up to the Present Time New York: Da Capo Press. p. 120. ISBN 0-306-80005-5
- ↑ Le Gonidec, Marie-Barbara. "Carte géographique/ map of the origins of different bagpipes". Cornemuses d'Europe et de Méditerranée (in French). Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication/French Ministry of Culture and Communication. Retrieved 27 January 2012.
- ↑ Seeler, Oliver. "The Universe Of Bagpipes". Retrieved 27 January 2012.
- ↑ "A Brief History of the Metronome". Franz Manufacturing Company, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
- ↑ Kleiner, Fred (2010). Gardner's art through the ages: the western perspective. Cengage Learning. pp. 583–584. ISBN 978-0-495-57355-5. Retrieved 21 February 2011.
- ↑ Schiffer, Michael; Hollenback, Kasy; and Bell, Carrie. 2003. Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology In the Age of Enlightenment. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23802-2
- ↑ Roulette Wheel Study, Ron Shelley, (1988)
- ↑ MIT, "Inventor of the Week Archive: Pascal : Mechanical Calculator", May 2003. "Pascal worked on many versions of the devices, leading to his attempt to create a perpetual motion machine. He has been credited with introducing the roulette machine, which was a by-product of these experiments."
- ↑ Parlett, David (1990). The Oxford guide to card games: a historical survey. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-214165-1
- ↑ Blackjack History
- ↑ "The First Photograph - Heliography". Retrieved 2009-09-29.
from Helmut Gernsheim's article, "The 150th Anniversary of Photography," in History of Photography, Vol. I, No. 1, January 1977: ... In 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate ... The sunlight passing through ... This first permanent example ... was destroyed ... some years later.
- ↑ Boris Kossoy (2004). Hercule Florence: El descubrimiento de la fotografía en Brasil. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. ISBN 968-03-0020-X.
- ↑ The Poitevin patents and the importance of using primary sources
- ↑ Vogel, Shane (2000). "WHERE ARE WE NOW?: Queer World Making and Cabaret Performance". GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies. 6 (1): 29. doi:10.1215/10642684-6-1-29.
- ↑ "Movements of Air, Etienne-Jules Marey, Photographer of Fluids". Musée d'Orsay. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
- ↑ Rausch, Andrew (2004). Turning Points In Film History. Citadel Press. ISBN 978-0-8065-2592-1.
- ↑ BBC Education - Local Heroes Le Prince Biography, BBC, archived on 1999-11-28
- ↑ Howells, Richard (Summer 2006). "Louis Le Prince: the body of evidence". Screen. Oxford, UK: Oxford Journals. 47 (2): 179–200. doi:10.1093/screen/hjl015. Retrieved 2009-04-16.
- ↑ Louis Lumiere, The Lumiere Cinematograph. In:Fielding, Raymond (1979). A technological history of motion pictures and television: an anthology from the pages of the Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. University of California Press. pp. 49–51. ISBN 0-520-03981-5.
- ↑ "Georges Melies. French Motion Picture Producer a Pioneer in Industry.". New York Times. January 23, 1938. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
- ↑ TIMBRELL, Charles. Piano An Encyclopedia, Second Edition.
- ↑ Sadie, Stanley (1980). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. ISBN 0-333-60800-3.
- ↑ Elliott, Kelley. "A Brief History of Gemmaux". Corning Museum of Glass. Corning Museum of Glass. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
- ↑ Martin, Constant (1950). Musique électronique de l’instrument de musique le plus simple aux orgues électroniques, amélioration d’instruments classiques, cloches électroniques, constructions pratiques. Paris: Technique et vulgarisation. p. 202. LCCN 50031038.
- ↑ "Ohio Art - Our Story". Ohio Art. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
- ↑ Rogers, W. Sherman (2009). African American Entrepreneur: Then and Now. ABC-CLIO. p. 221.
- ↑ "Etch A Sketch turns 50: amazing art created with the drawing toy". Telegraph. London. July 12, 2010. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
- ↑ "Etch A Sketch Creator Dies". Gifts & Decorative Accessories Magazine. 2013-01-31. Retrieved 2013-02-02.
- ↑ Allbritton, Chris (30 July 200). "MOVIE PIRATES ATTACK THE WEB New software reduces the price of a ticket to $0". Daily News. Archived from the original on 29 November 2010. Check date values in:
|date=(help) - ↑ Biography of Charles Marie de la Condamine
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Weeks, Mary Elvira (1933). The Discovery of the Elements. Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education. ISBN 0-7661-3872-0.
- ↑ "Lamp." Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6Th Edition (2011): 1. Academic Search Premier. Web. 5 Dec. 2011.
- ↑ Aftalion, Fred (1991). A History of the International Chemical Industry. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 11–13. ISBN 0-8122-1297-5.
- ↑ Weeks, Mary Elvira (1933). "XII. Other Elements Isolated with the Aid of Potassium and Sodium: Beryllium, Boron, Silicon and Aluminium". The Discovery of the Elements. Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education. ISBN 0-7661-3872-0.
- ↑ Lance Day; Ian McNeil, eds. (1996). Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-19399-0.
- ↑ "The history of PVC". pvc.org. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
- ↑ Photovoltaic Effect. Mrsolar.com. Retrieved on 2010-12-12.
- ↑ The photovoltaic effect. Encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net. Retrieved on 2010-12-12.
- ↑ Hwang, Andy; Huang, Lihan (2009-01-31). Ready-to-Eat Foods: Microbial Concerns and Control Measures. CRC Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-4200-6862-7. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
- ↑ Cailletet, L (July 1885). "The Liquefaction Of Oxygen". Science. 6 (128): 51–52. Bibcode:1885Sci.....6...51C. doi:10.1126/science.ns-6.128.51. PMID 17806947.
- ↑ Editors, Time-Life (1991). Inventive Genius. New York: Time-Life Books. p. 52. ISBN 0-8094-7699-1.
- ↑ Horzinek MC (1997). "The birth of virology". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 71 (1/2): 15–20. doi:10.1023/A:1000197505492. PMID 9049014.
- ↑ Wallace, D. H. (1977) [1937]. Market Control in the Aluminum Industry (Reprint ed.). Arno Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-405-09786-7.
- ↑ Beery Mack, Pauline (February 1929). "Textiles and test tubes. Part II". J. Chem. Educ. 6 (2): 357–359. doi:10.1021/ed006p357.
- ↑ Hassam. "History Of Bleach" Check
|url=value (help). - ↑ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 149. ISBN 0-08-037941-9.
- ↑ Debierne, André-Louis (1899). "Sur un nouvelle matière radio-active". Comptes rendus (in French). 129: 593–595.
- ↑ Debierne, André-Louis (1900–1901). "Sur un nouvelle matière radio-actif – l'actinium". Comptes rendus (in French). 130: 906–908.
- ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1912". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
- ↑ Xu J. & Mao H. (2000). "Moissanite: A window for high-pressure experiments". Science. 290 (5492): 783–787. Bibcode:2000Sci...290..783X. doi:10.1126/science.290.5492.783. PMID 11052937.
- ↑ Henri Moissan (1904). "Nouvelles recherches sur la météorité de Cañon Diablo". Comptes rendus. 139: 773–786.
- ↑ US 1125476, Georges Claude, "Systems of Illuminating by Luminescent Tubes", issued 1915-01-19 See reproduction of patent.
- ↑ Jean Marguin (1994), p. 48
- ↑ Grinstead, Charles Miller; James Laurie Snell. "Introduction". Introduction to Probability. pp. vii.
- ↑ Daumas, Maurice, Scientific Instruments of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries and Their Makers, Portman Books, London 1989 ISBN 978-0-7134-0727-3
- ↑ 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article on Navigation. Accessed April 2008
- ↑ Turner, Anthony J. Melchisédech Thévenot, the bubble level, and the artificial horizon. Nuncius: annali di storia della scienza 7, no. 1 (1992): 131-145.
- ↑ The Roberval Balance
- ↑ Simons, Paul (17 October 2007). "How Reaumur fell off the temperature scale". The Times. Retrieved 2008-03-10.
- ↑ Pitot, Henri (1732). "Description d'une machine pour mesurer la vitesse des eaux courantes et le sillage des vaisseaux" (PDF). Histoire de l'Académie royale des sciences avec les mémoires de mathématique et de physique tirés des registres de cette Académie: 363–376. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
- ↑ Darcy, Henry (1858). "Note relative à quelques modifications à introduire dans le tube de Pitot" (PDF). Annales des Ponts et Chaussées: 351–359. Retrieved 2009-07-31.
- ↑ Schwinger, Julian (1986). Einstein's Legacy. New York: Scientific American Library. p. 93. ISBN 0-7167-5011-2.
- ↑ Socolof, Henry Dorin ; edited by Fred (1982). Chemistry, the study of matter. Fairfield, N.J.: Cebco Standard Pub. ISBN 9780205097005.
- ↑ Adler, Ken (2002). The Measure of all Things - The Seven-Year-Odyssey that Transformed the World. London: Abacus. ISBN 0-349-11507-9. - Prologue, p 1
- ↑ "La loi du 18 Germinal an 3 " la mesure [républicaine] de superficie pour les terrains, égale à un carré de dix mètres de côté "" [The law of 18 Germanial year 3 "The republican measures of land area equal to a square with sides of ten metres"] (in French). Le CIV (Centre d'Instruction de Vilgénis) - Forum des Anciens. Retrieved 2010-03-02.
- ↑ Rouse Ball, W. W. [1908] (2003) "Pierre Simon Laplace (1749–1827)", in A Short Account of the History of Mathematics, 4th ed., Dover, ISBN 0-486-20630-0
- ↑ Hellemans, Alexander; Bunch, Bryan (1988). The Timetables of Science. Simon & Schuster. p. 261. ISBN 0671621300.
- ↑ Chase G.C.: History of Mechanical Computing Machinery, Vol. 2, Number 3, July 1980, page 204, IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
- ↑ Bradley, Margaret. A career biography of Gaspard Clair Francois Marie Riche De Prony, bridge-builder, educator, and scientist. Mellen Press. 1998.
- ↑
- Chiles, James (Winter 2009). "The Other Renewable Energy". Invention and Technology. 23 (4): 24–35.
- Takahashi, Masayuki Mac; Translated by: Kitazawa, Kazuhiro and Snowden, Paul (2000) [1991]. Deep Ocean Water as Our Next Natural Resource. Tokyo, Japan: Terra Scientific Publishing Company. ISBN 4-88704-125-X. Cite uses deprecated parameter
|coauthors=(help)
- ↑ Henri Becquerel - Biography on the nobel prize website
- ↑ Darrigol, Olivier (2005). "The Genesis of the theory of relativity" (PDF). Séminaire Poincaré. 1: 1–22. doi:10.1007/3-7643-7436-5_1.
- ↑ Translation of Lippmann's 1908 article (This crude English translation will be more comprehensible if the reader bears in mind that "dark room" and "darkroom" are the translator's mistaken renderings of "chambre noire", the French equivalent of the Latin "camera obscura", and should be read as "camera" in the thirteen places where this error occurs.)
- ↑
- ↑ Taylor, Nick (2000). LASER: The inventor, the Nobel laureate, and the thirty-year patent war. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-83515-0. Page 56.
- ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1992". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
- ↑ Stephen Paget (1897). "Ambroise Paré and His Times, 1510–1590". G.P. Putnam's sons
- ↑ "The First Blood Transfusion?". Heart-valve-surgery.com. 2009-01-03. Retrieved 2010-02-09.
- ↑ de Vaux, Jean Claude. "The Pierre Fauchard Academy". Retrieved 2006-07-22.
- ↑ "Dentistry practice in Spain and France during the 18th century" (in Spanish). The free info's corner. p. 1. Retrieved July 22, 2006.
- ↑ L’Abbé Nollet (June 1748) “Recherches sur les causes du bouillonnement des liquides” (Researches on the causes of the boiling of liquids) Mémoires de Mathématique et de Physique, tirés des registres de l’Académie Royale des Sciences de l’année 1748, pp. 57–104; especially pp. 101–103. The Mémoires (1748) were printed in: Histoire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences Année 1748, which was published in 1752 and which contains a condensed version of Nollet's article on pages 10–19.
Original text : Avant que de finir ce Mémoire, je crois devoir rendre compte d'un fait que je dois au hasard, & qui me parut d'abord ... singulier ... j'en avois rempli une fiole cylindrique, longue de cinq pouces, & d'un pouce de diamètre ou environ ; & l'ayant couverte d'un morceau de vessie mouillée & ficelée au col du vaisseau, je l'avois plongée dans un grand vase plein d'eau, afin d'être sûr qu'il ne rentrât aucun air dans l'esprit de vin. Au bout de cinq ou six heures, je fus tout surpris de voir que la fiole étoit plus pleine qu'au moment de son immersion, quoiqu'elle le fût alors autant que ses bords pouvoient le permettre ; la vessie qui lui servoit de bouchon, étoit devenue convexe & si tendue, qu’en la piquant avec une épingle, il en sortit un jet de liqueur qui s'éleva à plus d'un pied de hauteur.
Translation : Before finishing this memoir, I think I should report an event that I owe to chance and which at first seemed to me ... strange ... I filled [with alcohol] a cylindrical vial, five inches long and about one inch in diameter; and [after] having covered it with piece of damp bladder [which was] tied to the neck of the vial, I immersed it in a large bowl full of water, in order to be sure that no air re-entered the alcohol. At the end of 5 or 6 hours, I was very surprised to see that the vial was fuller than at the moment of its immersion, although it [had been filled] as far as its sides would allow ; the bladder that served as its cap, bulged and had become so stretched that on pricking it with a needle, there came from it a jet of alcohol that rose more than a foot high.
- ↑
- Angélique du Coudray at the Dinner Party database, Brooklyn Museum. Retrieved October 24, 2007.
- Mothers and Daughters of Invention: Notes for a Revised History of Technology By Autumn Stanley, Page 234. Published 1995, Rutgers University Press. (at Google books)
- The King's Midwife : A History and Mystery of Madame du Coudray, by Nina Rattner Gelbart, Berkeley : University of California Press, (1998). ISBN 0-520-21036-0 (At Worldcat)
- ↑ Laennec, René (1819). De l'auscultation médiate ou traité du diagnostic des maladies des poumon et du coeur. Paris: Brosson & Chaudé.
- ↑ Kyle R, Shampe M (1974). "Discoverers of quinine". JAMA. 229 (4): 462. doi:10.1001/jama.229.4.462. PMID 4600403.
- ↑ (French)La codéine : Pierre ROBIQUET (1780–1840)
- ↑ Gerhardt C (1853). "Untersuchungen über die wasserfreien organischen Säuren". Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie (in German). 87: 149–179. doi:10.1002/jlac.18530870107.
- ↑ "General Anaesthesia website". General-anaesthesia.com. Retrieved 2010-08-19.
- ↑ Daston, Lorraine. "Scientific Error and the Ethos of Belief". Social Research. 72 (Spring 2005): 18.
- ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1907". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
- ↑ Cox FE (2010). "History of the discovery of the malaria parasites and their vectors" (PDF). Parasites & Vectors. 3 (1): 5. doi:10.1186/1756-3305-3-5. PMC 2825508
. PMID 20205846. - ↑ Baker, J. P. (2000). "The incubator and the medical discovery of the premature infant". Journal of perinatology : official journal of the California Perinatal Association. 20 (5): 321–328. doi:10.1038/sj.jp.7200377. PMID 10920793.
- ↑ Dunn, P. M. (1995). "Professor Pierre Budin (1846-1907) of Paris, and modern perinatal care". Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition. 73 (3): F193–F195. doi:10.1136/fn.73.3.F193. PMC 2528458. PMID 8535881.
- ↑ http://www.neonatology.org/classics/nursling/nursling.html
- ↑ Geison GL (1978). "Pasteur's work on rabies: Reexamining the ethical issues diagnosis for developing countries". Hastings Center Report. The Hastings Center. 8 (April): 26–. doi:10.2307/3560403. JSTOR 3560403. PMID 348641.
- ↑ Foster W, Raoult A (December 1974). "Early descriptions of antibiosis". J R Coll Gen Pract. 24 (149): 889–94. PMC 2157443. PMID 4618289.
- ↑ B.G. Firkin & J.A.Whitworth (1987). Dictionary of Medical Eponyms. Parthenon Publishing. ISBN 1-85070-333-7
- ↑ Intradermo-reaction de la tuberculine. Comptes rendus de l’Académie des sciences, Paris, 1908, 147, 355-357
- ↑ Bonah C (2005). "The 'experimental stable' of the BCG vaccine: safety, efficacy, proof, and standards, 1921–1933". Stud Hist Philos Biol Biomed Sci. 36 (4): 696–721. doi:10.1016/j.shpsc.2005.09.003. PMID 16337557.
- ↑
- Healy, D. 2005. Psychiatric Drugs Explained. 4th Ed. Britain:Elsevier Limited. P. 8, 17.
- Healy, David (2004). "Explorations in a new world". The creation of psychopharmacology. Harvard University Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-674-01599-9.
- López-Muñoz, Francisco; Alamo, Cecilio; Cuenca, Eduardo; Shen, Winston W.; Clervoy, Patrick; Rubio, Gabriel (2005). "History of the discovery and clinical introduction of chlorpromazine". Annals of Clinical Psychiatry. 17 (3): 113–35. doi:10.1080/10401230591002002. PMID 16433053.
- ↑ Lejeune, J; Gautier, M; Turpin, R (1959). "Etude des chromosomes somatiques de neuf enfants mongoliens". Comptes Rendus Hebd Seances Acad Sci. 248 (11): 1721–22.
- ↑ "1958-01-01". Retrieved 2011-01-02.
- ↑ Vinca reactor accident, 1958, compiled by Wm. Robert Johnston
- ↑ Nuove esplosioni a Fukushima: danni al nocciolo. Ue: "In Giappone l’apocalisse", 14 marzo 2011
- ↑ Martin, Douglas (20 October 2010). "Dr. Georges Mathé, Transplant Pioneer, Dies at 88". New York Times.
- ↑ (French)Les lauréats des 7èmes Victoires de la Médecine sur le site Les victoires de la Médecine 2008.
- ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2008". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
- ↑ Williams, Ruth (December 2010). "Alim-Louis Benabid: stimulation and serendipity". The Lancet. Elsevier Ltd. 9 (12): 1152. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70291-X. Retrieved July 14, 2016.
- ↑ Herpich, Nate (May 28, 2013). "Robert A. Pritzker Prize Winner's 'Serendipitous Discovery' Leads to Improved Lives for Many with Parkinson's". The Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research. Retrieved March 1, 2014.
- ↑ Michael Balter (October 6, 2000). "Profile. For "Father" of Abortion Drug, Vindication at Last". Science. 290 (5489): 39. doi:10.1126/science.290.5489.39. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 11183145.
- ↑ Etienne-Emile Baulieu: monsieur «longue vie» dans Le Monde du 17 août 2007.
- ↑ Lanzetta M, Petruzzo P, Dubernard JM, et al. (Jul 2007). "Second report (1998-2006) of the International Registry of Hand and Composite Tissue Transplantation". Transpl Immunol. 18 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1016/j.trim.2007.03.002. PMID 17584595.
- ↑ Ghodoussi, Dr. "Media Collection". Interface Surgical Technologies, LLC. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
- ↑ Austin, Naomi (2006-10-17). "'My face transplant saved me'". BBC News. Retrieved 2007-11-25.
- ↑ BBC News - Woman has first face transplant
- ↑ Web-page (in French) at http://www.herodote.net/histoire/evenement.php?jour=18260810 (retrieved 13 June 2008)
- ↑ D.L. Hobman, "Cromwell's Master Spy - A study of John Thurloe." , Chapman & Hall 1961 page 27.
- ↑ "1679-1681 – R P Verbiest's Steam Chariot". History of the Automobile: origin to 1900. Hergé. Retrieved 2009-05-08.
- ↑ Setright, L. J. K. (2004). Drive On!: A Social History of the Motor Car. Granta Books. ISBN 1-86207-698-7.
- ↑ Tom D. Crouch (2009). Lighter Than Air. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-9127-4.
- ↑ "U.S. Centennial of Flight Commisstion: Early Balloon Flight in Europe". Retrieved 2008-06-04.
- ↑ Lynn White, Jr.: "The Invention of the Parachute", Technology and Culture 9(3), 462-467 (1968). JSTOR
- ↑ The History of compressed air vehicles. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.aircarfactories.com/air-cars/compressed-air-history.html
- ↑ "Biography of Jean-Marie Le Bris". Retrieved 5 May 2011.
- ↑
- Clement Ader on Britannica
- Carroll Gray, "Clement Ader 1841 - 1925"
- Eole/Clément Ader" on the website of European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company EADS N.V.
- ↑ Ransom, Sylvia & Jeff, James. World Power, Bibb County School District, Georgia. April 2002.
- ↑ Origins of Control Surfaces, Aerospaceweb
- ↑ Crouch, Tom (1982). Bleriot XI, The Story of a Classic Aircraft. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 21 & 22. ISBN 0-87474-345-1.
- ↑ transportationhistory.suite101.com/article.cfm/louis_bleriot Transportation History at Suite101.com. Retrieved 12 March 2008.
- ↑ Blériot, Louis (25 July 1909). "Bleriot Tells of his Flight" (PDF). The New York Times (published 26 July 1909). ISSN 0362-4331. OCLC 1645522. Retrieved 26 July 2009.
I rose at 2:30 this (Sunday) morning, and, finding that the conditions were favorable, ordered the torpedo boat destroyer Escopette, which had been placed at my disposal by the French Government, to start. Then I went to the garage at Sangatte and found that the motor worked well.
- ↑ <Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.> (5 April 1913). "The New Daily Mail Prizes" (PDF). Flight. London, U.K.: F. King and Co. 5 (223): 393. ISSN 0015-3710. OCLC 6674288. Retrieved 25 July 2009.
£1,000 for flight across the channel between England and France, to be accomplished in daylight without touching the sea. Offered on October 5th, 1908. Won by M. Blériot, July 25th, 1909 in 46 minutes of flight.
- ↑ Clark, Nicola (24 July 2009). "100 Years Later, Celebrating a Historic Flight in Europe". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. OCLC 1645522. Retrieved 25 July 2009.
Mr. Blériot informed The Daily Mail of his intention to compete and set up his plane near the beach at Les Barraques. At 4:41 a.m. on July 25, in near-perfect weather conditions, Mr. Blériot took to the air, the plane’s engine belching clouds of black smoke. He skirted the French coastline and then veered north, flying about 30 yards above the water.
- ↑ Strickland L. Kneass (1894). Practice and Theory of the Injector. John Wiley & Sons (Reprinted by Kessinger Publications, 2007 ). ISBN 0-548-47587-3.
- ↑ "History of Motor Vehicles". Retrieved 14 November 2011.
- ↑ John Pike. "Globalsecurity". Globalsecurity. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
- ↑ Michauline
- ↑ Pryor Dodge The Bicycle 1996 (French ed 1996, German eds 1997, 2002, 2007)
- ↑ New York Times: Melinda Tuhis, "Bragging Rights to the Bicycle, All Thanks to a Frenchman," August 2, 1998, accessed July 18, 2010
- ↑ "Unmanned Ornithopters". About Ornithopters. Ornithopter Zone. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
- ↑ Olsson, Kent. "THE OUTBOARD MOTORS". Säffle Marinmotor Museum. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
- ↑ Desmond, Kevin. "A Brief History of Electric Water Speed Records". electric record team. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
- ↑ "history of Michelin". Official website of Michelin. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
- ↑ "ScooterManiac - Auto-Fauteuil". ScooterManiac. Florian JACQUET, webmaster. Retrieved 2010-08-28. External link in
|work=(help) - ↑ https://autos.yahoo.com/blogs/motoramic/december-2-leon-levavasseur-patents-first-successful-v-140540074.html
- ↑ Constable, Georges (2003). A century of innovation: twenty engineering achievements that transformed our lives. Joseph Henry Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-309-08908-5.
- ↑ Munson, Kenneth. Helicopters and other Rotorcraft since 1907. London: Blandford Publishing, 1968. ISBN 978-0-7137-0493-8
- ↑ Leishman, Dr. J. Gordon, Technical Fellow of AHS International. "Paper." 64th Annual Forum of the American Helicopter Society International, on the aerodynamic capability of Cornu's design
- ↑ The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Aircraft (Part Work 1982-1985), 1985, Orbis Publishing
- ↑ Zucker, Robert D.; Oscar Biblarz (2002). Fundamentals of gas dynamics. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-05967-6.
- ↑ Csere, Csaba (January 1988). "10 Best Engineering Breakthroughs". Car and Driver. 33 (7): 63.
- ↑ "His Smoke Eating Cats Now Attack Traffic Smog." Popular Science, June 1955, pp. 83-85/244.
- ↑ Boucher, François. 20,000 Years of Fashion: The History of Costume and Personal Adornment, Harry Abrams, 1966, pp. 164–172
- ↑ Ashelford, Jane. The Visual History of Costume: The Sixteenth Century. 1983 edition (ISBN 0-89676-076-6), 1994 reprint (ISBN 0-7134-6828-9).
- ↑ Condra, Jill (2007). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Clothing Through World History: 1501-1800. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 75. ISBN 0-313-33664-4.
- ↑ Eric Hobsbawm, "The Age of Revolution", (London 1962; repr. 2008), p.45.
- ↑ "Fabric Glossary". Retrieved 2008-11-21.
- ↑ Bellis, Mary. "Levi Strauss - The History of Blue Jeans". About.com. The New York Times Company. Retrieved 2010-08-04.
"Levi Strauss had the canvas made into waist overalls. Miners liked the pants, but complained that they tended to chafe. Levi Strauss substituted a twilled cotton cloth from France called "serge de Nimes." The fabric later became known as denim and the pants were nicknamed blue jeans." In French of Nimes or De Nimes shortened to Denim
- ↑ "Barthelemy Thimonnier". Sewing Machines from the Past to the Present. Retrieved April 11, 2005.
- ↑ Pechter E. A new method for determining bra size and predicting postaugmentation breast size. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 102 (4) September 1998, 1259–1265 : According to Life magazine, in 1889 Herminie Cadolle of France invented the first modern bra.
- ↑ Steele, Valerie (1988). Paris Fashion: A Cultural History. Oxford University Press. pp. 246–248. ISBN 0-19-504465-7.
- ↑ The History of the Perfect Little Black Dress Everything you want to know about Coco Chanel's designs in the 1920s.
- ↑ Fashion Encyclopedia, "Lacoste Sportswear" (2007).
- ↑ The Story of Lacoste. Retrieved from http://www.lacoste.com/library/pdf/LACOSTE_history_histoire.pdf.
- ↑ Style & Design: Lacoste. Time Magazine, Winter 2004. Retrieved from http://www.time.com/time/2004/style/111504/article/lacoste_on_a_lark_and_a08a.html.
- ↑ The Brand Channel, Lacoste profile.
- ↑ "The Bikini: One Of Man's Greatest Inventions". CBS News. 2 July 2006. Retrieved 17 September 2008.
- ↑ Brulin, Diana (February 19, 2009). "Drafting the pencil skirt look". The Sydney Morning Herald.
- ↑ Sun, Florence (November 19, 2004). "Sharpen up with pencil skirts". News Guangdong.
- ↑ Ward, Susan (2005). "A-Line dress". In Steele, Valerie. Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion. Thomson Gale. pp. 35–36. ISBN 0-684-31394-4.
- ↑ (French)Élodie Baërd, « Guy Cotten, à l'épreuve du temps », Figaro madame, 4 août 2008
- ↑ Papin’s steam digester, Science and Society – Picture Library.
- ↑ "History of the Cafetiere by James Grierson". Gallacoffee.co.uk. Retrieved 2009-12-23.
- ↑ Eric Granryd & Björn Palm, Refrigerating engineering, Stockholm Royal Institute of Technology, 2005, see chap. 4-3
- ↑ C.G. Lehmann, Lehrbuch der physiologischen Chemie, Verlag Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig (1853) p71.
- ↑ Baker Christopher G.J; Ranken H.D; Kill R.C., eds. (1997). Food industries manual. 24th Edition. Springer. pp. 285–289. ISBN 978-0-7514-0404-3. Retrieved 13 November 2009.
- ↑ "The Spiritan Connection to the Clementine Fruit". Center for Spiritan Studies. Duquesne University. 2007. Retrieved September 23, 2010.
- ↑ A. ZELDES, Leah (February 1, 2011). "The food processor at 40". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
- ↑ "Famous French Food". Classic French Food. Retrieved 2010-07-07.
- ↑ Zeldes, Leah A. (November 18, 2009). "Eat this! Coq au vin, savory French fare for cool weather". Dining Chicago. Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide, Inc. Retrieved November 18, 2009.
- ↑ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 150–153 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6
- 1 2 3 Steele, Ross. The French Way. 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006.
- ↑ Zeldes, Leah A. (Jan 13, 2009). "Eat this! Cassoulet, a hearty winter casserole from Southwestern France". Dining Chicago. Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide, Inc. Retrieved Jan 13, 2009.
- ↑
- Kaufmann, J. E. and H. W. Kaufmann. (2004) The Medieval Fortress: castles, forts and walled cities of the Middle Ages. Cambridge, US: Da Capo, p.33. ISBN 978-0-306-81358-0.
- Nicolle, David. (1984) The Age of Charlemagne. Oxford: Osprey, p.109. ISBN 978-0-85045-042-2.
- ↑ Tunis, Edwin (1999). Weapons: A Pictorial History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6229-9.
- ↑ (French)[www.etudes-touloises.com/articles/105/art7.pdf L'art de la guerre au XVIe siècle], Pascal THIEBAUT.
- ↑ "Pistols: An Illustrated History of Their Impact" By Jeff Kinard, Published by ABC-CLIO, 2004
- ↑ H.Blackmore, Hunting Weapons, pg 50
- ↑ Encyclopaedia Britannica Eleventh Edition article Uniforms ; Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Cambridge University Press.
- ↑ Monti, Ángel María (1852). Historia de Gibraltar: Dedicada a SS. AA. RR., los serenisimos señores Infantes Duques de Montpensier. Imp. Juan Moyano. p. 216.
- ↑ Chartrand, René; Courcelle, Patrice (2006). Gibraltar 1779 - 1783 : the great siege ([Online-Ausg.] ed.). Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 9781841769776.
- ↑ "Conscription". Archived from the original on 2009-10-31.
- ↑ Archer, Christon I.; John R. Ferris; Holger H. Herwig (2002). World History of Warfare. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-4423-1. p.397
- ↑ Rifles by David Westwood p.23
- ↑ Division of the History of Technology, Division of the History of Technology. "The lead minie ball". Civil War. National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 26 January 2013.
- ↑ Nosworthy, Brent (2003). The bloody crucible of courage : fighting methods and combat experience of the Civil War (1. Carroll & Graf ed.). New York: Carroll & Graf. p. 752. ISBN 0786711477.
- ↑ French Army 1870-71 Franco-Prussian War (1) by Stephen Shann p.37
- ↑ The Long Arm of Lee by Jennings Cropper Wise, Gary W. Gallagher p.30
- ↑ Roscoe ; written for the Bureau of Naval Personnel from material prepared by R.G. Voge ... [et al.] ;, Theodore; Navy, illustrated by Fred Freeman, photographs by the U.S. (1984). United States submarine operations in World War II (13th print. ed.). Annapolis: United States Naval Institute. p. 577. ISBN 0870217313. Cite uses deprecated parameter
|coauthors=(help) - ↑ Farwell, Byron (2001). The encyclopedia of nineteenth-century land warfare : an illustrated world view (1. ed.). New York [u.a.]: Norton. p. 900. ISBN 0393047709.
- ↑ The Submarine Torpedo Boat, Its Characteristics and Modern Development by Allen Hoar p.93
- ↑ Hovgaard, William (1971). Modern history of warships : comprising a discussion of present standpoint and recent war experiences for the use of students of naval construction, naval constructors, naval officers and others interested in naval matters (New impr. ed.). London (7 Nelson Rd, S.E.10): Conway Maritime Press Ltd. p. 502. ISBN 9780851770406.
- ↑ John Walter (2006). Rifles of the World (3 ed.). Iola: Krause Publications. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-89689-241-5.
- ↑ Médard, Louis (1994). "L'œuvre scientifique de Paul Vieille (1854-1934) (The scientific work of Paul Vieille (1854-1934) )". Revue d'histoire des sciences (in French). 47 (3–4): 381–404.
- ↑ Davis, Tenny L. The Chemistry of Powder & Explosives (1943) pages 289–292
- ↑ "France: Air Force (Armée de l'Air), in Christopher H. Sterling, Military Communications: From Ancient Times to the 21st century (ABC-CLIO, 2008) p168
- ↑ Manbachi, A.; Cobbold, R. S. C. (2011). "Development and application of piezoelectric materials for ultrasound generation and detection". Ultrasound. 19 (4): 187. doi:10.1258/ult.2011.011027.
- ↑ Steven J. Zaloga, The Renault FT Light Tank, London 1988, p. 3
- ↑ Beyer, Rick, The Greatest Stories Never Told, A&E Television Networks / The History Channel, ISBN 0-06-001401-6 p. 60
- ↑ French source: Tour du télégraphe Chappe
- ↑ (French)L.-Séb. Le Normand et J.-G.-V. de Moléon, Annales de l'industrie nationale et étrangère, ou Mercure technologique, Bachelier, Paris, 1821
- ↑ Larousse Encyclopaedia - les frères Robert, Mécaniciens français.
- ↑ Lighthouses, Illuminants, Lenses Engineering and Augustin Fresnel, An Historical Bibliography, United States Coast Guard.
- ↑ Roy, Noëlle. "Louis Braille 1809-1852, a French genius" (PDF). Valentin Haüy Association website. Retrieved 2011-02-05
- ↑ Peter Daniels, 1996, "Analog and Digital Writing", in The World's Writing Systems, p 886
- 1 2 "20 Things You Didn't Know About... Pencils", Discover magazine, May 2007, retrieved 2009-04-30
- ↑ Anthony Ralston and Edwin D. Reilly (ed.), Encyclopedia of Computer Science Third Edition, IEEE Press/Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York 1993, ISBN 0-442-27679-6 Baudot Code
- ↑ Froehlich, E.; Allen Kent (1991). The Froehlich/Kent encyclopedia of telecommunications: Volume 2. CRC Press. pp. 31–33. ISBN 0-8247-2901-3.
- ↑ Variations of Conductivity under Electrical Influences, By Edouard Branly. Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Volume 103 By Institution of Civil Engineers (Great Britain) Page 481 (Contained in, Comptes rendus de I'Acade'mie des Sciences, Paris, vol. cii., 1890, p. 78.)
- ↑ On the Changes in Resistance of Bodies under Different Electrical Conditions. By E. Branly. Minutes of proceedings, Volume 104 By Institution of Civil Engineers (Great Britain). 1891. Page 416 (Contained in, Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Paris, 1891, vol. exit., p. 90.)
- ↑ Experiments on the conductivity of insulating bodies, By M. Edouard Branly, M.D. Philosophical magazine. Taylor & Francis., 1892. Page 530 (Contained in, Comptes Rendus de l' Academic des Sciences, 24 Nov. 1890 and 12 Jan. 1891, also, Bulletin de la Societi internationals d'electriciens, no. 78, May 1891)
- ↑ McFarlane, Maynard D., Maynard D. (August 1980). "A Historical Look at Facsimile". Education, IEEE. 23 (3): 151–156. doi:10.1109/TE.1980.4321400. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
- ↑ Phaidon Design Classics- Volume 2, 2006 Phaidon Press Ltd. ISBN 0-7148-4399-7
- ↑ Humble Masterpieces - The Museum of Modern Art New York, April 8–September 27, 2004.
- ↑ <Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.> (November 1990). Computer Aided Design. 22 (9) http://www.flutterby.com/archives/1999_Dec/7_DeadPierreBezier.html. Retrieved 10 February 2012. Missing or empty
|title=(help) - ↑ "The Pierre Bézier Award". Solid Modeling Association (SMA). Retrieved 10 February 2010.
- ↑
- "Timeline of Computer History". Computer History Museum. Retrieved 10 January 2010.
- Roy A. Allan A History of the Personal Computer (Alan Publishing, 2001) ISBN 0-9689108-0-7 Chapter 4 (PDF: https://archive.org/download/A_History_of_the_Personal_Computer/eBook04.pdf)
- ↑ "A small biography of Louis Pouzin". Retrieved 9 June 2011.
- ↑ http://si-pwebsrch02.si.edu/search?site=americanhistory&client=americanhistory&proxystylesheet=americanhistory&output=xml_no_dtd&filter=0&q=roland+moreno&submit.x=13&submit.y=8&s=SS
- ↑ "Monticello Memoirs Program". Computerworld honors. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
- ↑ "Minitel lives on". Radio France Internationale. February 11, 2009.
- ↑ Parks, Bob (October 2000). "Wired Magazine, The Big Picture - Philippe Kahn". Retrieved 2006-04-20.
- ↑ Maney, Kevin (2007-01-23). "Baby's birth foretells "birth" of the cell phone camera — and societal evolution". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-12-25.
- ↑ Robert Sullivan (2011). 100 Photographs That Changed The World. LIFE Books. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-60320-176-6.
- ↑ Kowalski, R. A. (1988). "The early years of logic programming" (PDF). Communications of the ACM. 31: 38. doi:10.1145/35043.35046.
- ↑ Colmerauer, A.; Roussel, P. (1993). "The birth of Prolog" (PDF). ACM SIGPLAN Notices. 28 (3): 37. doi:10.1145/155360.155362.
- ↑ 99 Bottles program written in LSE
- ↑ "Ada 83 designer Jean Ichbiah dies", Ada-Europe, 2007, webpage: AdaE-Jobit.
- ↑ Official website Caml language family
- ↑ Object-Oriented Software Construction, Second Edition, by Bertrand Meyer, Prentice Hall, 1997, ISBN 0-13-629155-4
- ↑ "information". Clickteam. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
- ↑ Martin, Henri-Jean (1995). The history and power of writing. University of Chicago Press. p. 608. ISBN 0-226-50836-6.
- ↑ Gardey, Delphine (1998). "La standardisation d'une pratique technique: la dactylographie (1883-1930)". Réseaux. 16 (87): 75. doi:10.3406/reso.1998.3163.
- ↑ US patent 5487616, Jean D. Ichbiah, "Method for designing an ergonomic one-finger keyboard and apparatus therefor", issued 1996-01-30
- ↑ "Catégorie:Version". Different versions. Bépo community. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
- ↑ Maso, B. (tr. Horn, M.) (2005), The Sweat of the Gods, Mousehold Press, pp. 1-2, ISBN 1-874739-37-4
- ↑ Paris-Rouen 1869
- ↑ Pierre de Coubertin. The Olympic Idea. Discourses and Essays. Editions Internationales Olympiques, Lausanne, 1970.
- ↑ Marco Foyot, Alain Dupuy, Louis Almas, Pétanque - Technique, Tactique, Etrainement. Robert Laffont, 1984.
- ↑ "ESPN – Triathlon milestones". Sports.espn.go.com. Retrieved 2012-07-02.
- ↑ "Year by Year 1943" -- History Channel International
- ↑ Ortuzar, Jimena (1 September 2009). "Parkour : A Kinetic Urban Utopia". TDR/The Drama Review. 53 (3): 54–66. doi:10.1162/dram.2009.53.3.54. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
- ↑ Pratt, Murray (2011). "Displacement at the movies: PARKOUR and plurality in France and beyond". Contemporary French Civilization. 33 (2): 63–75. doi:10.3828/cfc.2009.16. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
- ↑ Zapata's outrageous, US$6,600 Flyboard - Aquaman meets Iron Man, gizmag.com. Retrieved: 14 July 2016.
- ↑ Flyboard Air: Franky Zapata develops his own jet-powered flying hoverboard that actually works, International Business Times. Retrieved: 14 July 2016.
- ↑ Lynch, Kevin (2016-04-30). "Confirmed: Franky Zapata sets new Farthest hoverboard flight record in France". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 2016-07-12.
- ↑ Britten's Watch & Clock Makers' Handbook Dictionary & Guide Fifteenth Edition p.122
- ↑ A Journal of natural philosophy, chemistry and the arts p.159
- ↑ Encyclopedia of time Samuel L. Macey p.348
- ↑ "Photometry article". 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. Love to Know. Retrieved 2009-05-12.
- ↑ Dell, Ronald; Rand, David A.J. (2001): Understanding Batteries. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 0-85404-605-4
- ↑ Practical Electricity by W. E. Ayrton and T. Mather, published by Cassell and Company, London, 1911, pp 188-193
- ↑ Althin, Torsten K.W. (1948). C.E. Johansson, 1864–1943: The Master of Measurement. Stockholm: Ab. C.E. Johansson [C.E. Johansson corporation]. LCCN 74219452. p.41
- ↑ "groups.google.co.ke". groups.google.co.ke. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
- ↑ photodigital.net — rec.photo.equipment.misc Discussion: Achille Victor Emile Daubresse, forgotten prism inventor
- ↑
- (French)Guy Coriono, 250 ans de l'École des Ponts et Chaussées en cent portraits, Presses de l'école nationale des Ponts et Chaussées, Paris, 1997, 222 p. ISBN 2-85978-271-0
- (French)Antoine Picon, L'art de l'Ingénieur. Constructeur, entrepreneur, inventeur, éditions du Centre Pompidou, Paris, 1997, 598 p. ISBN 2-85850-911-5
- ↑ Willett, Julie (2010). The American Beauty Industry Encyclopedia. Greenwood.
- ↑ Gupta, Seema (2005). Origin Of 101 Everyday Things. Pustak Mahal. pp. 59–61. ISBN 978-81-223-0909-6.
- ↑ Bellis, Mary. "The History of Concrete and Cement". About.com. Retrieved 2011-01-25.
- ↑ Bicycle History, Chronology of the Growth of Bicycling and the Development of Bicycle Technology by David Mozer
- ↑ "Henry Draper Medal". National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
- ↑ Siegel, Jay A.: Forensic Science: The Basics. CRC Press, 2006, ISBN 0-8493-2132-8, S. 12.
- ↑ Conser, James Andrew and Russell, Gregory D.: Law Enforcement in the United States. Jones & Bartlett Publishers, 2005, ISBN 0-7637-8352-8, S. 39.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 11/13/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.